Regulation: R23

23EE51-ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP

LABORATORY MANUAL

(Electrical and Electronics Engineering)

LAKIREDDY BALI REDDY COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING (AUTONOMOUS)
MYLAVARAM-521230

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 PART A : ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING LAB

Course Objectives:

To impart knowledge on the fundamental laws & theorems of electrical circuits, functions of
electrical machines and energy calculations.

Course Outcomes:

After competition of this course, the student will be able to

CO1. Measure voltage, current and power in an electrical circuit. (L3)
CO2. Measure of Resistance using Wheat stone bridge (L4)
CO3. Discover critical field resistance and critical speed of DC shunt generators. (L4)
CO4. Investigate the effect of reactive power and power factor in electrical loads. (L5)

List of experiments:

1. Verification of KCL and KVL

2. Verification of Superposition theorem
3. Measurement of Resistance using Wheat stone bridge
4. Magnetization Characteristics of DC shunt Generator
5. Measurement of Power and Power factor using Single-phase wattmeter
6. Measurement of Earth Resistance using Megger
7. Calculation of Electrical Energy for Domestic Premises

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 Experiment No : 1 Date :

VERIFICATION OF KCL AND KVL

AIM : To Verify Kirchhoff‟s current and voltage laws for the given circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY
1. Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0 – 30) V 1
50 𝛀/5 A 1
2. Rheostat 25 𝛀/5 A 1
18 𝛀/5 A 1
3. Ammeter (0-1) A , MC 3
4. Voltmeter (0-10) V, MC 3
5. Connecting Wires -- Required

THEORY :
KIRCHHOFF‘S CURRENT LAW (KVL)
Statement:
Kirchhoff's current law states that the sure of the currents entering into any node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving that node.
The node may be an interconnection of two or more branches. In any parallel circuit, the
node is a junction point of two or more branches. The total current entering into a node is equal to
the current leaving that node.

In general, sum of the currents entering any point or node or junction equal to sum of the
currents leaving from that point or node or junction as shown in Fig.

If all of the terms on the right side are brought over to the left side, their signs change to
negative and a zero is left on the right side, i.e.

This means that the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a junction is equal to zero.

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KIRCHHOFF‘S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

Statement:
Kirchhoff's voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed
path in a circuit is always zero at all instants of time.
When the current passes through a resistor, there is a loss of energy and, therefore, a voltage
drop. In any element, the current always flows from higher potential to lower potential. Consider
the circuit in Fig. It is customary to take the direction of current I as indicated in the figure, i.e. it
leaves the positive terminal of the voltage source and enters into the negative terminal.

As the current passes through the circuit, the sum of the voltage drop around the loop is
equal to the total voltage in that loop. Here the polarities are attributed to the resistors to indicate
that the voltages at points a, c and e are more than the voltages at b, d and f, respectively, as the
current passes from a to f.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
KCL:

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KVL :

PROCEDURE :
1. Connect the circuit diagrams as shown in the fig. for KCL and KVL.
2. Using RPS, apply the given supply voltage.
3. For KCL, measure the ammeter readings.
4. For KVL, measure the voltmeter readings.
5. Tabulate the values of voltages and currents of KVL and KCL.
6. Verify KCL as I=I1+I2 and KVL as VS = V1 + V2 + V3.

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS :

TABULAR COLUMNS :
KVL KCL
PARAMETERS
VS V1 V2 V3 I I1 I2
THEORETICAL
PRACTICAL

PRECAUTIONS :
1. Check the connections before switching ON the supply.
2. The terminals of the rheostat should be properly connected.
3. Disconnect the connections properly after the completion of experiment.
4. Measure the readings accurately without parallax error.

RESULT :
The KVL and KCL for the given circuit are verified theoretically and practically.

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Viva Questions:

1) What is Current Divider Rule ?

2) What is Voltage Divider Rule?
3) What is Current?
4) Could you measure Voltage in series?
5) What is Kirchoff‟s Current Law (KCL)?
6) Define Voltage.
7) Define Ohm‟s Law for A.C ?
8) What do you mean by dependent and independent voltage sources?
9) How does a capacitor store an electrical charge?
10) Could you measure current in parallel?

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Experiment No : 2 Date :

VERIFICATION OF SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

AIM : To verify the superposition theorem by determining the current flowing through the
resistance R.

APPARATUS REQUIRED :
S.NO. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT RANGE QUANTITY
1. Regulated Power Supply (RPS) (0 – 30) V 1
50 𝛀/5 A 1
2. Rheostat 25 𝛀/5 A 1
18 𝛀/5 A 1
3. Ammeter (0-2) A , MC 1
4. Connecting Wires -- Required

THEORY :
The superposition theorem states that in any linear network containing two or
more sources, the response in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the
responses caused by individual sources acting alone, while the other sources are
non-operative; that is, while considering the effect of individual sources, other
ideal voltage sources and ideal current sources in the network are replaced by
short circuit and open circuit across their terminals respectively. This theorem is valid only for
linear systems.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

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PROCEDURE :
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the Circuit diagram (a).
2. Switch ON the supply voltage (DC) and apply V1 and V2.
3. Note down the Ammeter reading as I.
4. Make V1= 0 and apply V2, note down the ammeter reading as I1.

5. Make V2= 0 and apply V1, note down the ammeter reading as I2.

6. Verify the condition I = I1 + I2

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS :

TABULAR COLUMNS :

V1 = 15V, V1 = 0V, V1 = 15V,

S.NO. Parameter
V2 = 10V V2 = 10V V2 = 0V
Current through 18 Ohm
1.
(Theoretical)
Current through 18 Ohm
2.
(Practical)

PRECAUTIONS :
1. Check the connections before switching ON the supply.
2. The terminals of the rheostat should be properly connected.
3. Disconnect the connections properly after the completion of experiment.
4. Measure the readings accurately without parallax error.

RESULT :
The superposition theorem is verified for the given circuit theoretically and practically.

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Experiment No : 3 Date :

MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE USING WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

Aim:
To measure the unknown medium resistance using Wheatstone‟s bridge.

Apparatus:

S.NO. Name Range Type Quantity

Wheatstone‟s bridge
1 -- -- 1
trainer kit
2 Connecting wires -- -- Required

Theory:
The Wheatstone bridge is the most commonly used circuit for measurement of medium range resistances.
The Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistance arms, together with a battery (voltage source) and a
galvanometer (null detector). The circuit is shown in Figure.

In the bridge circuit, R3 and R4 are two fixed known resistances, R2 is a known variable resistance and
RX is the unknown resistance to be measured. Under operating conditions, current ID through the
galvanometer will depend on the difference in potential between nodes B and C. A bridge balance
condition is achieved by varying the resistance R2 and checking whether the galvanometer pointer is
resting at its zero position. At balance, no current flows through the galvanometer. This means that at
balance, potentials at nodes B and C are equal.
The unknown resistance can be calculated as

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Procedure:
1) Connect the fixed resistances on the trainer kit.
2) Switch ON the supply.
3) Vary the value of variable resistance upto the galvanometer shows zero value.
4) Hence calculate the value of unknown resistance by using the formula.

TABULAR COLUMN:
S.NO. R2 R3 R4 RX
1.
2.
3.
4.

Precautions:
1) Vary the value of variable resistance with different ranges.
2) Switch OFF the trainer kit after completion of experiment.

Result:
The unknown resistance is calculated using Wheatstone‟s bridge.

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Experiment No : 4 Date :
MAGNETIZATION CHARACTERISTICS OF
D.C. SHUNT GENERATOR
AIM:- To draw the open circuit or magnetization characteristics and to determine the critical resistance
and critical speed of a DC Shunt generator.

APPARATUS:
S.no. Name Range Type Quantity
1. Voltmeter 0-300V MC 1 No.
2. Ammeter 0-2A MC 1 No.
3. Rheostat 18Ω/ 12A MC 1 No.
4. Rheostat 360Ω/ 1.2A MC 2 Nos.
5. Connecting wires Required

THEORY:

Magnetization Curve:
The graph between the field current and no load induced emf is called the magnetization characteristics of
a machine. This is same as B-H curve of the material used for the pole construction. Due to residual
magnetism in the poles, some emf is generated even when If=0. Hence the curve starts a little way up. The
slight curvature at lower end is due to magnetic inertia. It seen that the first part of the curve is practically
straight. This is due fact that at lower flux densities, reluctance of the iron path being negligible, total
reluctance is given air gap reluctance which is constant. Hence, the flux and consequently, the generated
emf is directly proportional to the field current. However at higher flux densities where permeability is
small, iron path reluctance becomes appreciable and straight relation between E and If no longer holds
good. In other words saturation of poles starts.

Critical Resistance(RC):

It is defined as the amount of field resistance required to generate emf in the armature winding. (or) The
critical field resistance is defined as the field resistance of the generator which holds the rated voltage of
it. (or) It is the value of field resistance beyond which the generator fails to build up the voltage if there is
a further increase in the field resistance.
Critical Speed(NC):
Critical speed is defined as the speed at which the given shunt field resistance is equal to the critical
resistance. It is the speed at which the shunt generator just fails to build up its voltage without any external
resistance in the field circuit. It is denoted by Nc.
PROCEDURE:

1) All the connections are done as per the circuit diagram.

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2) Before giving the supply to the motor, armature rheostat is kept at maximum resistance position and
field rheostat is kept at minimum resistance position and filed rheostat of generator is kept at maximum
resistance position.
3) Supply is given to the motor.
4) Start the motor with the help of 3-point starter.
5) Speed of the motor is adjusted to rated value by using armature and field rheostats of motor circuit.
6) Ammeter and voltmeter reading are noted.
7) By varying the field rheostat of generator, the readings of ammeter and voltmeter are noted for each
step of variation of rheostat. At each step of variation the speed should be kept constant.
8) The meter readings are noted until the generated voltage is just above the rated voltage.
9) After plotting the magnetization characteristics draw a tangent line to its initial portion, which passes
through the origin.
10) Calculate the slope of this tangent line, which gives the critical field resistance (Rc) at the
rated speed of the generator.

11) Draw the designed field resistance line (Rf)

12) Draw a line parallel to y-axis, which cuts the Rf line and Rc line with in the linear portion
of the magnetization characteristics.

13) Take the generated emf values corresponding to points of intersection of the line.

14) Calculate the critical speed using the formula.

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

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OBSERVATIONS:

S.No. Generated voltage (Volts) Field current(Amps)

MODEL CHARACTERISTICS:

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PRECAUTIONS:
1) The field rheostat of motor should be in minimum resistance position at the time of starting to start the
machine from minimum speed.
2. The field rheostat of generator should be in maximum resistance position at the time of starting and
stopping the machine.
3. Residual voltage should be taken under no field current.
4. The characteristics should be drawn at constant rated speed by adjusting the drive unit or motor filed
resistance as required.

RESULT:
The critical resistance and critical speed are determined from the magnetization characteristics of
DC shunt generator.

Viva Questions:
1. What is critical field resistance?
2. What are the conditions to build up e.m.f ?
3. What is critical speed?
4. Does voltage will be developed at zero field current?
5. What are the reasons for failure of building up e.m.f in a DC generator?
6. What are different types of DC generators?
7. What is meant by prime mover?
8. Why Rsh > Ra in DC shunt machine.
9. How to draw OCC curve?
10. How to find critical speed?

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 Experiment No : 5 Date :

MEASUREMENT OF POWER AND POWER FACTOR

USING SINGLE-PHASE WATTMETER
Aim: To measure the power and power factor of series RL load using single-phase wattmeter.
Objective:
(i) To connect a wattmeter and power factor meter in a single phase circuit for measurement of
power and power factor of load.
(ii) To verify relation 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼𝐶𝑂𝑆∅ , from actual measurement of power, voltage, current and
power factor.

Apparatus:
S.NO. Name Range Type Quantity
1 Dimmerstat or Variac 0-230V 1- 1
1 Voltmeter 0-100V MI 1
2 Ammeter 0-5A MI 1
3 Wattmeter 300V, 5A UPF 1
4 Power Factor Meter 300V, 5A 1
5 Rheostat 100 Ω,5A 1
6 Connecting wires Required

Theory:
Series RL Circuit:

Consider a simple RL circuit in which resistor, R and inductor, L are connected in series with a
voltage supply of V volts. Let us think the current flowing in the circuit is I (amp) and current through
resistor and inductor is IR and IL respectively. Since both resistance and inductor are connected in series,
so the current in both the elements and the circuit remains the same. i.e IR = IL = I. Let VR and VL be the
voltage drop across resistor and inductor.

Applying Kirchhoff voltage law (i.e sum of voltage drop must be equal to apply voltage) to this circuit we
get,

Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:
1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.
2. Switch on the a.c supply through a variac fix up to the rated input voltage.
3. Increase the load current by variac and note down wattmeter, power factor meters, voltmeter and
ammeter readings.
4. Calculate the power and power factor of single phase RL load.
5. Tabulate the readings of voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter and power factor meter.

Observations:
Tabulation for RL-Load: R=100 Ohms.

Power Factor
S.No. L V I Wattmeter reading(W)
Cos = W/VI

1. 50mH
2. 100mH
3. 125mH

Precautions:
1. Loose connections should be avoided.
2. Meter reading should not exceed beyond their rating.
3. Take readings carefully.

Result: The power and power factor are measured for RL load using single phase wattmeter.

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VIVA-VOICE
1. How the power factor of a single phase circuit is measured?
2. What is principle of power factor meter?
3. What are the different types of power factor meters?
4. Why is moving iron power factor meter generally used?
5. Why moving iron PF meters less accurate than dynamometer type?
6. What is power factor?
7. Give expression for the PF?
8. What is synchroscope and where it is used?
9. What is crossed coil PF meter?
10. What is instrument for speed measurements?

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 Experiment No : 6 Date :

MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE USING MEGGER

AIM: To measure the earth resistance using Megger.

Apparatus:
S.NO. Name Range Type Quantity
1 Megger Kit -- Digital 1
2 Multimeter -- Digital 1
3 Copper Rods -- -- 3
4 Connecting wires Required

Theory:

Operating Principle:
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Principle of Measurement:

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21
PROCEDURE:

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RESULT:
The earth resistance using Megger tester is measured.

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 Experiment No : 7 Date :

CALCULATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGYN FOR DOMESTIC PREMISES

Aim: To calculate the electrical energy for domestic loads.
Apparatus:
S.NO. Name Range Type Quantity
1 Dimmerstat or Variac 0-230V 1- 1
2 Voltmeter 0-100V MI 1
3 Ammeter 0-5A MI 1
4 Wattmeter 300V, 5A UPF 1
5 Energy meter Induction 1200 Rev/KWh 1
6 Bulb 180W 1
7 Stop watch Digital 1
8 Connecting wires Required

Theory:
An instrument that is used to measure either quantity of electricity or energy, over a period of time is
known as energy meter or watt-hour meter. In other words, energy is the total power delivered or
consumed over an interval of time t may be expressed as:

If v(t) is expressed in volts, i(t) in amperes and t in seconds, the unit of energy is joule or watt second. The
commercial unit of electrical energy is kilowatt hour (KWh). For measurement of energy in A.C. circuit,
the meter used is based on “electro-magnetic induction” principle. They are known as induction type
instruments. The measurement of energy is based on the induction principle is particularly suitable for
industrial or domestic meters on the account of lightness and robustness of the rotating element.
Moreover, because of smallness of the variations of voltage and frequency in supply voltage, the accuracy
of the induction meter is unaffected by such variations. If the waveform of the supply is badly distorted,
the accuracy, however, is affected. Basically, the induction energy meter may be derived from the
induction watt-meter by substituting for the spring control and pointer an eddy current brake and a
counting train, respectively. For the meter to read correctly, the speed of the moving system must be
proportional to the power in the circuit in which the meter is connected.
Circuit Diagram:

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PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. Keep the single phase variac at zero volt position.
3. Now switch on the power supply.
4. Gradually vary the variac to apply the rated voltage (230 volts).
5. For different values of load, note down the readings of the ammeter, voltmeter, wattmeter and time
taken for 05 revolutions of the disc.
6. Gradually vary the variac to minimum or zero volt position.
7. Switch off the power supply.
8. Calculate observed reading, actual reading, %error.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Time(t) Theoretical Practical
Voltmeter Ammeter Wattmeter %Error=
S.N.O. for „5‟ Energy Energy
(V) (A) (W) (E1-2)/E2*100
Rev (sec) (E1) (E2)

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Theoretical reading = E1
Practical reading = E2
MODEL CALCULATIONS:
Theoretical reading = No. of revolutions / (energy meter constant (k)
Where, no. of revolutions = 05
Energy meter constant k=1200 rev/kwh
Practical reading = W *t
%Error = [(E1-E2)/E2] *100

Precautions:

1) Measure the readings without parallax error.

2) Calculate the error at different loads.

Result:
The energy and %error for different loads are calculated.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the working principle of energy meter?

2. What type of controlling torque is used in energy meter?
3. What is the purpose of using shading band in energy meter? .
4. How does energy meter differ from a watt meter?
5. What is the purpose of brake magnet in energy meter?
6. How braking torque can be adjusted in energy meters?
7. Which type of meter is energy meter?
8. What is creeping? How to avoid error due to creeping?
9. Why aluminium disc is preferred over copper disc?
10. Why induction type energy meter is preferred?

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 PART B: ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING LAB

Course Objectives:

• To impart knowledge on the principles of digital electronics and fundamentals of

electron devices & its applications.

Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student will be able to

CO1: Identify & testing of various electronic components.

CO2: Understand the usage of electronic measuring instruments.
CO3: Plot and discuss the characteristics of various electron devices.
CO4: Explain the operation of a digital circuit.

List of Experiments:

1. Plot V-I characteristics of PN Junction diode A) Forward bias B) Reverse bias.

2. Plot V – I characteristics of Zener Diode and its application as voltage Regulator.
3. Implementation of half wave and full wave rectifiers
4. Plot Input & Output characteristics of BJT in CE and CB configurations
5. Frequency response of CE amplifier.
6. Simulation of RC coupled amplifier with the design supplied
7. Verification of Truth Table of AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, Ex-OR, Ex-NOR gates
using ICs.
8. Verification of Truth Tables of S-R, J-K& D flip flops using respective ICs.

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 EXPT. NO: 1
P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
DATE:

Aim: Plot V-I characteristics of PN Junction diode A) Forward bias B) Reverse bias.
Apparatus: 0-30V Power Supply
0-1V Voltmeter
0-50mA Ammeter
0-500A Ammeter
0-30V Voltmeter
1N4007 diode
Theory:
Forward Bias: If P-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and N-type
Semiconductor is connected to negative terminal of the battery, this way of biasing is
called as forward bias. In this biasing current is exponentially increasing with
respective to applied voltage.
Reverse bias: If P-type semiconductor connected to negative terminal of the battery and N-type
semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of the battery is known as reverse
bias. In reverse bias the current through the diode is I = -Io whose value is independent
on applied voltages and which depends on minority carrier concentration and
temperature. For every 10 degrees raise in temperature reverse saturation current
becomes double.
Thus in forward bias diode offers less resistance and in reverse bias diode offers
high resistance. Hence it is known as rectifier.
Circuit Diagram:

+ -
00.000 V

R1 D1
+ -
00.000 A
1.0kOhm_5% 1N4007GP
V1
5V

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 Forward Bias

+ -
00.000 V

D1 R1
+ -
00.000 A
1N4007GP 1.0kOhm_5%

V1
30V

Reverse Bias
Procedure:
1. Construct the Circuit as shown in Figure .Use 1N4007 and forward bias it. Get the circuit
verified.
2. Adjust the voltage in suitable increments until the current through the diode (Ammeter
reading) is maximum allowable value. Note the voltage across the diode.
3. Decrease the voltage applied to the diode in steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter
reading. Sample readings are shown below.
4. To reverse bias the diode construct the circuit as shown in figure . use 1N4007 diode.
5. Adjust the Power supply gradually up to 20V observing the micro ammeter reading.
6. Decreasing the voltage in convenient steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter reading.

Observations:
Forward Bias:
Voltmeter
Reading (V)
Ammeter
Reading
(mA)

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 Reverse Bias:
Voltmeter
Reading (V)
Ammeter
Reading (A)

Graphs: Draw graphs showing volt ampere relation for 1N4007 diode. Sample Graph is as shown in
figure.

Io

Vo

Results: 1. Static forward resistance =

2. Static reverse resistance =
3. Dynamic forward resistance =
4. Dynamic reverse resistance =
Viva Questions :
1. What is meant by P- type layer?
2. What is meant by N- type layer?
3. What is the function of p-n junction diode?
4. What is meant by forward bias of p-n junction diode?
5. What is meant by reverse bias of p-n junction diode?
6. Define cut-in voltage of p-n junction diode.
7. What is meant by depletion layer in p-n junction diode?

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 EXPT. NO: 2
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
DATE:

Aim: Plot V – I characteristics of Zener Diode and its application as voltage Regulator.
Apparatus: 0-30V Power Supply
0-1V Voltmeter
0-50mA Ammeter
0-500A Ammeter
0-30V Voltmeter
Zener diode BZX 4.2V or BZX 5.1V or 1Z 6.2V
Theory: In forward bias it acts as similar to the diode. In the reverse bias it acts as regulator
because its doping concentration is higher than the ordinary diode, due to this a large electric
field intensity is developed at the known as Zener Break. The diode which adopts this is zener
diode.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
The zener diode should maintain a constant output voltage against variations in input voltage Vin,
or load resistance RL.
Basically there are two type of regulations such as:
Line Regulation: In this type of regulation, series resistance and load resistance are fixed, only input
voltage is changing. Output voltage remains the same as long as the input voltage is maintained above
a minimum value.

Load Regulation: In this type of regulation, input voltage is fixed and the load resistance is varying.
Output volt remains same, as long as the load resistance is maintained above a minimum value.

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Circuit diagram:

+ -
00.000 V

D1
R2
+ -
00.000 A
100Ohm_5%
1Z6.2
V1
5V

Fig.1.Zener diode Forward bias

+ -
00.000 V

D1
R1 -
+
00.000 A
100Ohm_5%
1Z6.2
V1
12V

Fig.2.Zener diode Reverse bias

Fig.3.Zener Voltage Regulator with a Variable Input Voltage

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 Fig.4.Zener Voltage Regulator with a Variable Load Resistance

A.PROCEDURE FOR FORWARD BIAD AND REVERSE BIAS:

1. Construct the Circuit as shown in Figure .Use 1Z 6.2V and forward bias it. Get the
circuit verified.
2. Adjust the voltage in suitable increments until the current through the diode
(Ammeter reading) is maximum allowable value. Note the voltage across the
zener diode.
3. Decrease the voltage applied to the zener diode in steps and note the ammeter
and voltmeter reading. Sample readings are shown below.
4. Construct the circuit as shown in figure using 1Z 6.2V zener diode to reverse bias
the diode.
5. Adjust the power supply gradually until we get 70mA.Note the voltage across the
diode.
6. Decrease the voltage applied in convenient steps and each step, note voltage
across the diode and ammeter reading.
Observations:
Forward Bias:
Voltmeter
Reading (V)
Ammeter
Reading
(mA)
TABLE1:FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

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 Reverse Bias:
Voltmeter
Reading (V)
Ammeter
Reading
(mA)
TABLE2:REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

Graphs: Draw graphs showing volt ampere relation for 1Z 6.2V zener diode. Sample Graph is
as shown in figure.
Io

Vo

Results: 1. Cut in Voltage =

2. Break down Voltage =

B.PROCEDURE FOR LINE REGULATION:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Vary DC voltage 0 to 20V step by step.
3. Note the Load current(IL), zener current(IZ), Output voltage(VO)
4. Calculate the voltage regulation.
5. Draw the graph between output voltage(y-axis) and input voltage (x-
axis).

TABLE 3.LINE REGULATION

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C.PROCEDURE FOR LOAD REGULATION:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.

2. Keeping input voltage is fixed and Noted down output voltage as VNL
3. Vary the Load Resistance (RL) step by step.
4. Note the Load current(IL), zener current(IZ), Output voltage(VO)
5. Calculate the voltage regulation.
6. Draw the graph between output voltage(y-axis) and Load Resistance (x-
axis).

Viva Questions :
1.What is meant by Avalanche effect?
2.What is meant by Zener effect?
3.What is meant by static and dynamic resistance of zener diode?
4.What is meant by Zener break down voltage?
5.What is Voltage regulator, Line Regulation and Load Regulation?

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 EXPT. NO :3 (a)
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
DATE:

Aim : 1.To Examine the input and output waveforms of a Half wave rectifier.
2.To find the ripple factor,
3.To find the regulation
4. To repeat the objectives 1,2&3 with Capacitor filter.
Apparatus: 230V/0-9V Transformer
Diode1N4007, Capacitor 470F, DRB, Multi Meter, CRO.
Theory : As per the circuit diagram, it contains transformer and one diode, DRB, Capacitor.
During the positive swing of power supply, the diode acts as forward bias condition. Hence it
offers very less resistance. Thus whatever the input signal is applied transmitted to the load
resistance when the negative swing of the A.C signal is applied to the diode, it acts as reverse
bias connection Since it offers as high resistance. In this no signal is allowed to the load. Thus
it gives Half wave output signal .The amount of A.C signal is present in output wave form is
measured by ripple factor.
Ripple factor = V rms
V dc
Percentage of Regulation =VNL --VFL X 100
VFL
Circuit diagram:

D1
T.1 . XSC1

1N4007GP C1 G
50%
4.7uF T
Key = a A B
R1
100K_LIN

NLT_PQ_4_10

Half wave rectifier

37
Procedure : 1.Connect the circuit as shown in figure.
2. Use the diode 1N4007 and load resistance RL . Do not connect Capacitor.
3. Observe the Voltage across the secondary of the transformer and across the
output terminals using CRO.
4. Vary the load resistance in convenient steps and note the A.C voltage and D.C
voltage across the load.
5. Connect the Capacitor across the load and repeat the procedure 1,2&3

Observations : (without filter Capacitor)

VAC No load = VDC No load =

S.No Load (RL) VAC VDC Ripple Factor % Reg.

(with filter Capacitor)

VAC No load = VDC No load =

S.No Load (RL) VAC VDC Ripple Factor % Reg.

38
Results: Average Ripple factor without filter :
Average Ripple factor with filter :
Average % Regulation without filter :
Average % Regulation with filter :

Viva Questions:
1. What is the function of half wave rectifier (HWR)?
2. What is meant by voltage regulation of HWR?
3. What are the applications of HWR?
4. What is the value of peak inverse voltage of HWR?
5. What is the value of ripple factor in HWR?

39
 EXPT. NO: 3 (b)
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
DATE:

Aim : To Rectify the AC signal and then to find out Ripple factor and percentage of Regulation in
Bridge
rectifier with and without Capacitor filter.
Apparatus:
S.NO Name Range/Value Quantity
1 Transformer 230V / 12V 1
2 Diode 1N4007 4
3 Multi meter -- 1
1 kΩ, 2.2 kΩ,3.3 kΩ & 10
4 Resistor 1 Each
kΩ
5 Capacitor 4.7F 1
Bread Board and Connecting
6 -- 1 set
wires
7 Dual Trace CRO 20 MHz 1

Theory:
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier uses four individual rectifying diodes connected in a closed loop “bridge”
configuration to produce the desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does
not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size and cost. The single
secondary winding is connected to one side of the diode bridge network and the load to the other side
as shown in figure. The four diodes labeled D1 to D4 are arranged in “series pairs” with only two
diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply,
diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows
through the load, During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but
diodes D1 and D2 switch “OFF” as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load
is the same direction as before.

40
Circuit Diagram:
Bridge Rectifier without filter :

Bridge Rectifier with filter :

41
Waveforms :

Procedure :
WITHOUT FILTER:
1. Connect the circuit on bread board as per the circuit diagram.
2. Connect the primary of the transformer to main supply i.e. 230V, 50Hz
3. Connect the resistance RL of value 1kΩ
4. Connect the Multimeter at output terminals and vary the load resistance from 1kΩ to 10KΩ
and note down the Vac and Vdc as per given tabular form
5. Disconnect load resistance and note down no load voltage Vdc (V no load)
6. observe and note down the Input and Output Wave form on Graph Sheet.

7. Calculate ripple factor

8. Calculate Percentage of Regulation,

42
 WITH CAPACITOR FILTER:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit Diagram and repeat the above procedure
from steps 2 to 8.
Observations :
(without filter Capacitor)
VAC No load = VDC No load =
S.No Load (RL) VAC VDC Ripple Factor % Reg.

(with filter Capacitor)

VAC No load = VDC No load =
S.No Load (RL) VAC VDC Ripple Factor % Reg.

Results: Observed Input and Output Wave forms and Calculated ripple factor and percentage of
regulation in Full-wave Bridge rectifier with and without filter.

Viva Questions:
1. What is the function of full-wave rectifier (FWR)?
2. What is meant by voltage regulation of FWR?
3. What are the applications of FWR?
4. What is the value of peak inverse voltage of FWR?
5. What is the value of ripple factor in FWR?

43
 EXPT. NO: 4 (a)
TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS:
COMMON EMITTER (CE) DATE :

AIM:- A. To plot the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in common
emitter configuration .

APPARATUS:-
1. (0-30 V) Power supply
2. (0-10Ma) ammeter
3. (0-1V) Volt Metter
4. (0-30V) Volt Metter
5. BC 107

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the figure.
2. Make VCE = OPEN
3. Vary the 5V supply in convenient steps and note the values of IB and VBE.
4. Adjust 0-30V power supply so that VCE=0V And fix it.
5. Vary the 5V supply in convenient steps and note the values of IB and VB and VBE.
6. Steps repeat 4 and 5 for VCE =2V.
7. Sample observations are given to obtain out put characteristics family.
8. Adjust 5V supply and fix the value of IB =50A.
9. Vary the 0-30V Power supply in convenient steps and note the value of IC And VCE.
10. Repeat steps 8 for IB=100A To 150A.

CIRCUIT:-
- +
00.000 A
Q1
R1 BC107BP
+ -
00.000 A

1.0kOhm_5%

V1
+ + 30V
5V 00.000 V 00.000 V
- -

V2

44
TABULAR FORM:-
INPUT
VCE=0V VCE=2V
VBE IBA VBE IBA

OUTPUT
IB=50A IB=70A IB=100A
VCE IC VCE IC VCE IC

GRAPH:- (INPUT)

IE

VBE

45
GRAPH : (OUTPUT)

IC

VCE

RESULT:- Characteristics of CE are studied.

Viva Questions:
1.Give the relation betwee IB, IC and IE
2.Give the relation between ICEO and ICBO.
3.Define the transport factor.
4. Define saturation region, cut-off region and active region.

46
 EXPT.NO: 4( b)
TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS:COMMON
BASE (CB) DATE :

Aim: B. To plot the input and output characteristics of a transistor connected in common
Base configuration .
.

Apparatus : 1. Transistor BC 547/BC 107

2. Resistor 1KΩ
3. RPS
4. Voltmeter 0-10V, 0-30V
5. Ammeter 0-50mA, 0-100mA
6. Breadboard ,Connectors
Theory : In a common Base transistor base terminal is connected common to both the nput
(Emitter – Base) voltage and the output (collector –base) voltage . Voltmeters and
Ammeters are connected to measure the input and output voltages and currents.

Input Characteristics:
To determine the input characteristics, the output (Collector-Base) Voltage is maintained
constant ,and the input (Emitter-Base) voltage is set at several convenient levels. For each
level of the input voltage, the input current (Emitter current) is recorded.

Output Characteristics:
To determine the output characteristics the input (Emitter) Current is held constant at
each of several fixed levels. For each fixed level of IE, the output voltage VCB is
adjusted in convenient steps, and the corresponding levels of collector current are
recorded.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

Q1
R1 BC107BP
- + - +
00.000 A 00.000 A

1.0kOhm_5%

V1 - + 30V
00.000 V 00.000 V
30V + - V2

47
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. I/P Characteristics:-
(a) . Set the output voltage VCB as constant and vary the input voltage VBE in
convenient steps and note down the input current IE at each step.
(b) . Repeat step 2 for different values of output voltage VCB.
3. O/P Characteristics:-
(a) . Set the input current IE as constant adjusting the input power supply.
(b) . Vary the output voltage VCB in convenient steps and note down the output
current IC at each step.
4. Repeat steps 4 & 5 for constant values of IE.

TABULAR READINGS:

VCB= 0V VCB= 1V VCB= 2V

VBE (V) IE (mA) VBE (V) IE (mA) VBE (V) IE (mA)

OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IE = IE = IE =
VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA) VCB (V) IC (mA)

48
GRAPH:- (INPUT)

VCB=0V

IE

VCB

GRAPH: (OUTPUT)

IC

VCB

RESULT:

Viva Questions:

1. Explain Early effect in CB configuration?

2. Give the relation betweenIB and IC .
3. Define large signal current gain.
4. Define emitter efficiency.

49
 EXPT. NO: 5
FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CE AMPLIFIER
DATE:
AIM:- To study the frequency response characteristics of single RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER.

APPARATUS:-
1. Transistor (BC 107)
2. Resistors- 2.2 K,220,1K
3. Capacitors- 10F,100F
4. Function generator
5. CRO
THEORY:-
In the CE AMPLIFIER its current gain and voltage gain are high resulting in higher
power gains compared with the other configurations. Its input impedance is medium high and
output impedance is medium. In the circuit emitter resistance provides bias stabilization due to
dc generative feedback. But this also reduces AC gain since same feedback is there for AC
Also. AC degenerative feed back is eliminated by bypassing RC using a large capacitor. This
bypass capacitor affects the frequency response of the amplifier.
Frequency response is the curve drawn on a semi log paper between gain (usually in
db) of the amplifier and the input signal frequency. Generally frequency is taken along X-axis
on a log scale and gain (db) along Y-axis on a liner scale. The amplifier maintains constant
gain in the mid band of frequencies. The gain below the lower cut off frequency is rolling
down. This is because, during the low frequencies the resistance of the input capacitor CB very
high. So amplification is poor. During the high frequencies, input capacitor acts as short
circuit. But the reactance of emitter bypass capacitor CE is low.

FORMULAE:-
BAND WIDTH: (Fh-FL)KHZ Where Fh= Upper cut off frequency. FL= Loewr cut off
frequency.

50
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

VCC
12V
R2
R4
0Ohm_1% XSC1
1.0kOhm_5% C4

C1 Q1 G
R1 BC107BP
10uF T
A B
2.2kOhm_5%
10uF
V1
40mV R5 C3
28.28mV_rms
0Ohm_1% 220Ohm_5% 100uF
1000Hz
0Deg
R3

PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the power cord of the unit to AC mains and connect the output of
the signal generator to the input of CE amplifier.
2. Feed a sine wave of amplitude about 40 mv , changing the frequency of
signal generator, measure the voltage output using a FET Voltmeter and
simultaneously observe the waveform on oscilloscope.
3. Tabulate the results and plot the curve frequency (f) versus voltage gain (Av)
in db.
4. Compute the 3-db bandwidth of the CE amplifier from the graph.
5. Connect the variable resistance RL to the output and adjust its value so that
output voltage falls to half of its value when not connected. This gives the
output impedance of the CE Amplifier.

MODEL GRAPH:-

AV(max)
3dB

Voltage gain in dB

Frequency in KHz
fL fH

51
TABULAR READINGS:-

S . No Frequency in Output Voltage Gain = (Vo/VIn) Gain in db =

HEz (Vo) in Volts 20log(Vo/Vin)
10
20
20
..
100
200
..
1000
2000
..
1000KHz
2000KHz
3000KHz

RESULT:-
Thus the experiment on CE amplifier has been done and the bandwidth been
found to be .......................... kHz.
Viva Questions:
1. Compare CE and CB amplifiers.
2. What are the Applications of CE amplifier?
3. Compare CE and CC amplifiers.

52
 EXPT. NO: 6
SIMULATION OF RC COUPLE AMPLIFIER
DATE:
AIM:- To design and draw the frequency response of RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER using
MULTISIM.

APPARATUS:-
1. Transistor (BC 107)
2. Resistors- 2.2 K,220,1K
3. Capacitors- 10F,100F
4. Function generator
5. CRO
THEORY:-
RC Coupled amplifier consists the following elements:
(i) Biasing circuit: The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization circuit.
(ii) Input capacitance Cin: This is used to couple the signal to the base of the transistor. If this is
not used, the signal source resistance will come across R2 and thus change the bias. The
capacitor Cin allows only a.c. signal to flow.
(iii) Emitter bypass capacitor CE : This is connected in parallel with RE to provide a low
reactance path to the amplified a.c. signal. If it is not used, then amplified a.c. signal flowing
through RE will cause a voltage drop across it, thereby shifting the output voltage.
(iv) Coupling capacitor C : This is used to couple the amplified signal to the output device. This
capacitor C allows only a.c. signal to flow.

When a weak input a.c. signal is applied to the base of the transistor, a small base current flows.
Due to transistor action, a much larger a.c. current flows through collector load RC, a large
voltage appears across RC and hence at the output. Therefore, a weak signal applied to the base
appears in amplified form in the collector circuit. Voltage gain (Av) of the amplifier is the ratio
of the amplified output voltage to the input voltage. The frequency response curve obtained will
be of the form as shown in Fig. It can be seen that the gain decreases at very low and very high
frequencies, but it remains constant over a wide range of mid-frequency region and Band Width
to be calculated.

53
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:-

54
PROCEDURE:-
1. Open MULTISIM tool and select proper component as per above the design
the procedure and connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Apply a sinewave amplitude about 50mV measure the voltage output using
a FET Voltmeter and simultaneously observe the waveform on oscilloscope.
3. Increase the frequency step by step and tabulate .
4. Tabulate the results and plot the curve frequency (f) versus voltage gain (Av)
in db.
5. Compute the 3-db bandwidth of the CE amplifier from the graph.
6. Connect the variable resistance RL to the output and adjust its value so that
output voltage falls to half of its value when not connected. This gives the
output impedance of the CE Amplifier.

MODEL GRAPH:-

AV(max)
3dB

Voltage gain in dB

Frequency in KHz
fL fH

TABULAR READINGS:-

S . No Frequency in Hz Output Voltage Gain = (Vo/VIn) Gain in db =

(Vo) in Volts 20log(Vo/Vin)
10
20
20
..
100
200
..
1000
2000
..
1000KHz
2000KHz
3000KHz

55
 RESULT:-
Thus the experiment on CE amplifier has been done and the bandwidth been
found to be .......................... kHz.
Viva Questions:
1. Compare CE and CB amplifiers.
2. Compare CE and CC amplifiers.
3. Which is best amplifier?
4. What is Band width of Amplifier?
5. What are the Applications of CE amplifier?

56
 EXPT. NO: 7
STUDY OF LOGIC GATES
Date:

a) AIM:
To study of logic gates and verify their truth tables using IC’s.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
i) IC 7408, IC 7432, IC 7404
ii) LEDs
iii) Breadboard
iv) Connecting Wires

THEORY:

Circuit that takes the logical decision and the process are called logic gates. Each gate has
one or more input and only one output. OR, AND, NOT are basic gates.
i) AND GATE: (IC 7408)
The AND gate performs a logical multiplication commonly known as AND function. The output is
high when both the inputs are high. The output is low level when any one of the inputs is low.
ii) OR GATE: (IC 7432)
The OR gate performs a logical addition commonly known as OR function. The output is high
when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low level when both the inputs are low.
iii) NOT GATE: (IC 7404)
The NOT gate is called an inverter. The output is high when the input is low. The output is
low when the input is high.

iv) NAND GATE: (IC 7400)

The NAND gate is a contraction of AND-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low
and any one of the input is low .The output is low level when both inputs are high.
v) NOR GATE: (IC 7402)
The NOR gate is a contraction of OR-NOT. The output is high when both inputs are low. The
output is low when one or both inputs are high.

57
vi) Ex-OR GATE: (IC 7486)
The output is high when any one of the inputs is high. The output is low when both the inputs are
low and both the inputs are high.
vii) Ex-NOR GATE: (IC 74266)
The output is low when any one of the inputs is high. The output is high when both the inputs are
low and both the inputs are high.

SYMBOL ,PIN DIAGRAMS & TRUTH TABLE:

i) AND GATE:
SYMBOL:

PIN DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

58
ii) OR GATE:
SYMBOL:

PIN DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

iii) NOT GATE:

SYMBOL:

59
PIN DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

iv) NAND GATE:

SYMBOL:

PIN DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

60
v) NOR GATE:
SYMBOL:

PIN DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

vi) EX-OR GATE:

SYMBOL:

61
 PIN DIAGRAM:

TRUTH TABLE:

vii) Ex-NOR GATE:

SYMBOL:

PIN DIAGRAM OF IC 74266:

62
 TRUTH TABLE:

PROCEDURE:
(i) Connect as per pin diagrams (7th pin GROUND & 14th pin Vcc=5V).
(ii) Connect the input to 5V mean logic ‘1’ and connect the input to Ground line mean
Logic ‘0’.
(iii) To observe any output, the output pin to be connect with resistance 1k ohm and
LED in series and to be grounded.
(iv) Give the Logical inputs and observe the output & verify the truth table.

Precautions:
 All connections should be made neat and tight.
 ICs should be handled with utmost care.
 While making connections main voltage should be kept switched off
 Never touch live and naked wires.
 Components should be tested before performing the practical.
 When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.
 When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

RESULT:
Thus the truth tables of all basic gates are verified with IC’s.

63
 VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:

Define gates?

Define IC?

Give example of Demorgan’s theorem.

Write the logical equation for AND gate

How many no. of input variables can a NOT Gate have?

Under what conditions the output of a two input AND gate is one?

When will the output of a NAND Gate be 0?

What do you mean by Logic Gates?

What are the applications of Logic Gates?

What is Truth Table?

64
 EXPT. NO: 8
FLIP FLOPS:S-R, J-K& D
Date:

a) AIM:
To Verify the Truth Tables of S-R, J-K& D flip flops using ICs.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
i) IC 74LS279,IC 74LS73, IC 7474
ii) LEDs & 1Kohm Resistor
iii) Breadboard
iv) Connecting Wires

THEORY:

A flip flop is an electronic circuit with two stable states that can be used to store binary data.
The stored data can be changed by applying varying inputs. Flip-flops and latches are fundamental
building blocks of digital electronics systems used in computers, communications, and many other
types of systems.

A. R-S flip flop

B. J-K flip flop
C. D flip flop
D. T flip flop

A) RS flip flop

The basic NAND gate RS flip flop circuit is used to store the data and thus provides feedback from
both of its outputs again back to its inputs. The RS flip flop actually has three inputs, SET, RESET and
clock pulse.

65
Fig.2a.pin diagram of SR FLIP FLOP

66
 Fig.2b: pin description table for SR flip flop

B:J-K flip flop

In a RS flip-flop the input R=S=1 leads to an indeterminate output. The RS flip-flop circuit may be re-
joined if both inputs are 1 than also the outputs are complement of each other as shown in
characteristics table below.

67
Fig.4a. pin diagram of JK FLIP FLOP

68
 Fig.4b: pin description table for JK flip flop

C:D flip flop

A D flip flop has a single data input. This type of flip flop is obtained from the SR flip flop by
connecting the R input through an inverter, and the S input is connected directly to data input. The
modified clocked SR flip-flop is known as D-flip-flop and is shown below. From the truth table of SR
flip-flop we see that the output of the SR flip-flop is in unpredictable state when the inputs are same
and high. In many practical applications, these input conditions are not required. These input
conditions can be avoided by making them complement of each other.

69
Fig.6a. pin diagram of IC 74LS74 D FLIP FLOP

70
 74LS74 Pin Description
Pin No Pin Name Description

Resets the flip flop by clearing its

1 1CLR‟ memory

2 1D Input pin of the Flip Flop

3 CLK1 Clock pin for 1st flip-flop

4 1SET‟ Input SET pin for flip-flop

5 1Q Output Pin of the Flip Flop

6 1Q‟ The inverted output pin of Flip Flop

7 GND Ground

8 2Q‟ The inverted output pin of Flip Flop

9 2Q Output Pin of the Flip Flop

10 2SET‟ Input SET pin for flip-flop

11 2CLK Clock pin for 2nd flip-flop

12 2D Input pin of the Flip Flop

Resets the flip flop by clearing its

13 2CLR‟ memory

14 VCC Supply Voltage

Fig.6b. pin description of D FLIP FLOP

PROCEDURE:

A) SR FLIP FLOP

i. Connect pin diagram as shown in fig.2a as per given pin description Fig.2b..
ii.The Logical inputs are given for all the possible combinations.
iii. Observe the output and verify the truth table.

71
B) JK FLIP FLOP

i. Connect pin diagram as shown in fig.4a as per given pin description fig.4b.
ii.The Logical inputs are given for all the possible combinations.
iii. Observe the output and verify the truth table.

C) D FLIP FLOP

i. Connect pin diagram as shown in fig.6a as per given pin description fig.6b.
ii.The Logical inputs are given for all the possible combinations.
iii. Observe the output and verify the truth table.

Precautions:
 All connections should be made neat and tight.
 ICs should be handled with utmost care.
 While making connections main voltage should be kept switched off
 Never touch live and naked wires.
 Components should be tested before performing the practical.
 When unplugging a power cord, pull on the plug, not on the cable.
 When disassembling a circuit, first remove the source of power.

RESULT:
The truth tables of SR,J-K & D flip-flop are verified

72
73