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COMPREHENSIVE
LANGUAGE
NOTES
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CONTENTS

Section 1 Parts of Speech

Section 2 Figurative language

Section 3 Elements of Style

Section 4 Concord and correcting errors

Section 5 Punctuation

Wherever possible, additional examples and exercises will be provided.

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Section 1

Parts of speech

Nouns (‘naming’ words)

A noun is the name given to that group of words that name persons, places, things, groups, qualities
and ideas.

a) Common nouns

These refer to one of many things showing similar characteristics, e.g. dogs, scissors, logs.

b) Proper nouns

These name one particular place or thing, e.g. Johannesburg, Richard, February. They always
begin with a capital letter.

c) Collective nouns

These refer to a group or set of people or things, e.g. a team of players, an audience of music
lovers, a pack of dogs, a swarm of bees.

d) Abstract nouns

These cannot be recognised by the five senses, e.g. courage, delight, panic, wonder.

How do I recognise nouns and pronouns in a sentence?

Ask the questions: WHAT? WHO? WHOM?

Plural forms of nouns

Most nouns add –s to form plurals, e.g. dogs – dogs.

 Nouns ending in –ch, --s, --sh, --ss, and –x add –es in the plural, e.g. fox – foxes, gas – gases.
 Nouns ending in –y, preceded by a consonant, change –y to –ies, e.g. baby – babies – party –
parties.
 Nouns ending in –y, preceded by a vowel, add –s e.g. key – keys, honey – honeys.
 Nouns ending in –f change to –ves, e.g. loaf – loaves. (Exceptions are: roof – roofs, chief –
chiefs, safe – safes)
 Nouns ending in –o, add –es, e.g. hero – heroes, potato – potatoes, tomato – tomatoes.

The apostrophe is not used to form plurals, e.g. NOT hero’s, zoo’s etc
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Pronouns

A pronoun is a word used to replace a noun in a sentence.

a) Personal pronouns
E.g. I, you, he, she, it, we, they

b) Relative pronouns
E.g. who, which, that

c) Demonstrative pronouns
E.g. this, these, that, such

d) Possessive pronouns
E.g. mine, yours, ours

e) Interrogative pronouns
E.g. Who? Whose? What? Which?

f) Reflexive pronouns
E.g. themselves, myself

g) Indefinite pronouns
E.g. anyone, several, some, none

The first person = I, we

The second person = you
The third person = he, she, it, they

Verbs (‘doing’ words)

A verb is a word or a group of words which denote
 An action performed by a noun or a pronoun, e.g. The horse bolted.
 The state of being of a noun or pronoun, e.g. She is unhappy.

1. There are three kinds of verbs:

a) Transitive verbs

A transitive verb is followed by an object, e.g. The pirate drank rum.

b) Intransitive verbs

An intransitive verb has no object, e.g. The pupil sneezed.

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c) Linking verbs

A linking verb shows the connection between a noun and another noun, or a noun and
an adjective, e.g. That boy is a genius. Those diamonds are valuable.

Some verbs can be used transitively or intransitively, depending on the context.

E.g. He drives a truck. (transitive) She drives, but her husband never drives.
(intransitive)

2. Verbs can be divided into finite and non-finite forms.

a) Finite verbs

A verb is finite (complete) when it has a subject, a number and a tense.

E.g. they are listening carefully.

b) Non-finite verbs

A non-finite verb has no subject, no definite number and no certain tense.

E.g. waiting for the bus.

There are two non-finite parts of the verb:

i) The infinitive, e.g. to run, to swim.

Participles: past (usually ends in –ed, e.g. parked)
Present (usually ends in –ing e.g. swimming)

Participles can be used:

 To form tenses
 As verbal adjectives, e.g. swimming bath, sunken wreck
 As verbal nouns or gerunds

e.g. Swimming is good exercise. (The present participle is the subject)

or Ladies like dancing. (The present participle is the object)

3. Auxiliary verbs (helping verbs)

These are verbs which, together with a non-finite part of another verb (a participle or
infinitive) form a finite verb.

e.g. be, can, do, have, may, must

It is raining (auxiliary verb + present participle)
Andrew must have told him (auxiliary verb + auxiliary verb + past participle)
Jill ought to play (auxiliary verb + infinitive)
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4. Tenses

Verbs have three basic tenses:

a) The present (the action occurs now)

b) The past (the action has already occurred)
c) The future (the action is still to occur)

 A tense is perfect when the action is over and complete.

E.g. I have eaten. (uses past participle)
 A tense is continuous when the action has been going on for some time.
E.g. Mary is laughing
He has already been camping. (uses the present participle)

5. Mood

The mood of the verb indicates the state of mind of the speaker.

a) Indicative (states facts)

b) Imperative (gives orders and commands)
c) Subjunctive (expresses doubt or uncertainty)

6. Voice

The voice of a verb tells us whether the action is performed by the subject, or whether the
subject has the action done to it by someone or something else.

a) The active voice

The subject performs the action.
E.g. Birds sing.
You have helped him.

b) The passive voice

The subject has the action done to it.

e.g. He has been helped by you.
Mary was let down.
You have been seen.

Only transitive verbs can be turned into the passive voice. There can be no passive
form of intransitive verbs, e.g. I am going fishing.
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Positive Comparative Superlative

soon sooner soonest
slowly more slowly most slowly

The comparative form is used when comparing TWO situations, e.g. Ann dresses more fashionably
than Susan.

The superlative form is used when comparing three or more situations, e.g. This teacher spoke
most encouragingly of her work.

Prepositions

Prepositions are words that show the relationship between two nouns or pronouns, e.g. The train
went through the tunnel.

Common prepositions are: about, in under, after, between, beyond, inside, off, up, with. Some
prepositions are compound – they consist of more than one word, e.g. apart from, due to, in front
of, etc.

Generally, you should not end a sentence with a preposition.

E.g. Are you coming with? This should be: Are you coming with us?

A prepositional phase is a group of words introduced by a preposition, e.g. in the sea, beyond the
river, with one leg, etc.

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that connect parts of a sentence. Examples includes words like and,
because, but, however, since and yet.

There are four types of conjunctions.

a) Co-ordinating conjunctions where the things joined are basically similar, e.g. and, as,
moreover.

b) Subordinating conjunctions where the relationship between the things linked is not equal,
e.g. Although he could not play well, he tried his best.

Other examples include: after, because, for, since, till.

c) Contrasting conjunctions contrast different things, e.g. but, however, yet.

d) Co-relative conjunctions, e.g. both – and, either – or, so – as.

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Adjectives (‘describing’ words)

Adjectives are words that give us more information about nouns or pronouns and make their
meaning exact. An adjective is usually placed immediately in front of a noun of pronoun.
E.g. a broken bottle, lucky you, square pegs.

There are eight kinds of adjectives:

a) Demonstrative adjectives: this poem, those tulips, such skill

b) Possessive adjectives: my fingers, its nest, their dog

c) Interrogative adjectives: which house? Whose car?

d) Numerical adjectives: seven birds, each day

e) Indefinite adjectives: some girls, several boys

f) Adjectives which indicate order: first team, second thoughts

g) Descriptive adjectives: hasty decisions, blue moon.

h) The article: the definite article = The

E.g. the girl
The indefinite article = a, an
E.g. a dog, an apple

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison.

Positive Comparative Superlative

happy happier happiest
honest more honest most honest
good better best
many more most

The comparative is used when comparing TWO things, e.g. I am tall, my father is taller.
The superlative is used when comparing THREE or more things, e.g. This is the best speech of all.

Adverbs

Adverbs give us more information about verbs, adjectives or other adverbs. Adverbs are usually
placed as near to the verb as possible. They often end in –ly.
E.g. He drove dangerously. Ann is very bright.
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There are five kinds of adverbs.

a) Manner HOW? E.g. He spoke incoherently.

b) Place WHERE? E.g. She refused to go outside. Stand there.
c) Time WHEN? E.g. Nowadays, I don’t smoke. Today I am glad.
d) Reason WHY? E.g. The meeting was cancelled because of the storm.
e) Negation e.g. He neither sand nor whistled. He will not leave.

Adverbs have three degrees of comparison.

Sentences

In English, words in a sentence have meaning because of their position and order. Change the
position or the order and you change the meaning.

The normal word order in English is:

Subject Predicate
Verb Object

My diary has a golden lock

 The subject is a noun, a pronoun or a noun phrase about which a statement is being made.

 The object is the name given to the noun or pronoun to whom the action of the verb is being
done.

 The direct object is the person or thing directly affected by the action of the verb.

Direct object
 e.g. Frenchmen eat
snails

 The indirect object is the person or thing for whom the action of the verb and its object is
done.
Indirect object Direct object
e.g. he gave
Michael a map

When a noun, pronoun or adjective follows a linking verb, it is called a complement.

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Phrases

A phrase is any group of words which, taken together in a sentence, functions as part of speech.
It has no finite verb.
E.g. He behaved with dignity/at the meeting/last night.

Read through the notes in English in Context Book 5, which revise the different types of phrases.

Clauses

A clause is a group of words which contains a finite verb.

There are three types of clauses:

a) Noun clauses

e.g. What the headmaster knew about music could be written on a postage stamp.

He said that he would.

Ask the question WHAT?

b) Adjectival clauses

e.g. The man who wears a tall, white hat is the chef.

Ask the question WHICH man?

c) Adverbial clauses

There are eight different types of adverbial clauses:

 Time

E.g. He sent a telegram as soon as he arrived.

Ask the question WHEN?

 Reason

E.g. Michael failed because he did no work.

Ask the question WHY?

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 Place

E.g. I stood where she could easily see me.

Ask the question WHERE?

 Purpose

e.g. He bought the paper so that he could pass.

Ask the question

FOR WHAT PURPOSE?

 Condition

E.g. If you drop it, you may damage the phone.

Ask the question UNDER WHAT CONDITIONS?

The construction of sentences

a) A simple sentence stands along (i.e. it makes sense by itself) and contains only ONE finite
verb.
E.g. Jack fell down.

b) A compound sentence is formed when two or more simple sentences are joined by a
coordinating conjunction, or by a suitable point of punctuation.
E.g. Jack fell down and broke his crown.

c) A complex sentence consists of a main clause plus one or more subordinate noun, adjectival
or adverbial clauses.

Main clause Subordinate adverbial clause of place

E.g. The accident happened where two roads meet.

d) A sentence which contains more than one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses is
called a compound-complex sentence.

Main clause Sub adv. clause of place Main clause

E.g. Jack fell down where the two roads meet and broke his crown
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Complex sentences make writing more interesting. They clarify the relationship between statements.

 A PERIODIC sentence is one where the main clause comes at the end of the sentence.
E.g. Because he did no work, John failed Grade 12.

LOOSE sentences are often used to create emphasis or suspense because they keep the
reader’s choice attention until the end.

 A BALANCED sentence is one where two or more clauses have equal importance.
E.g. Andrew plays the bagpipes while Tracy plays the drums.
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Section 2

Figurative language

Keep your hair on means, figuratively, do not lose your temper. Such an expression could only be
used literally to a man in a hurricane wearing a wig. So, figurative language makes an image or
picture in the mind of the reader or listener. The more sensitive the reader is to the connotations of
words, the more likely it is that the reader will come to understand the image used by a poet.

My heart is like a singing bird could be paraphrased as ‘Oh, I am so happy!’ The poetry evokes a
double reaction – at first, it appears pointless to connect the word ‘heart’, a body organ, with a bird.
If the reader thinks about the connotations of the word ‘heart’, it is connected to the emotion of love.
The mental image of a ‘singing bird’ – its break wide open, its throat throbbing, and joyful, natural,
effortless sound being created – then established a concrete picture of the abstract word ‘happiness’,
and the poet’s meaning becomes clear. The comparison (simile) makes it possible to see, hear and
experience the poet’s feeling, and therefore understand it.

Sound effects in poetry

Alliteration Repetition of consonants at close intervals.

E.g. Sad, and still, and solitary!

Assonance Repetition of vowels sounds at close intervals.

E.g. The cat sat on the mat.
She read instead of sleeping in bed

Onomatopoeia A word that sounds like what it represents

E.g. The sea said Hsssshhh.
Snap, crackle, pop!

Figures of speech based on comparison

Simile A comparison between two things, using the words like or as.
E.g. My love is like a red, red rose.

Metaphor A direct comparison between two things.

E.g. With coal-red eyes and cataracting mane (The poet compares the horses
eyes to red coals and their manes to a waterfall)

Personification Representing a non-human thing as a person.

E.g. Africa, my Mother!
Busy old fool, unruly Sun!
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Apostrophe A passage or poem that addresses a person, a place, a thing or an idea directly.
It is a special form of personification. Praying is another form of apostrophe.
E.g. Death, be not proud,…
O, Wild West Wind, breath of Autumn’s being

Overstatement and understatement

Hyperbole Exaggeration to create dramatic effect.

E.g. A millionbillionwillion miles from home!
The tree grew to Heaven.

Litotes or
Understatement Stating less than you feel, for effect.
E.g. We had quite a hard time. (When you nearly died)
It was rather a shock. (After the most appalling thing has happened to you.)

Anti-climax A descent from a serious or elevated thought to something trivial or unimportant.

E.g. This little ritual had been going on for ages and ages – quite a term and a
half…

Bathos Similar to anti-climax, but is generally considered an error in writing.

Figures of speech based on contrast and contradiction

Oxymoron The placing of two words together that appear to contradict each other.
E.g. An open secret
Shallow permanence
Joyful trouble

Paradox An apparent absurdity or contradiction used to express a truth.

E.g. The child is the father to the man.
He was conspicuous by his absence.
It was so intelligent it was as stupid as well.

Antithesis Balanced opposites in one sentence to emphasise the contrast.

E.g. To err is human, to forgive, divine
Learning undigested by thought is labour lost, thought unassisted by learning is
perilous.

Figures of speech based on ambiguity – double meanings

Euphemism A pleasant phrasing of a harsh truth.

E.g. you are making a mistake (You are lying)
He has passed away to his final resting place. (He died)
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Innuendo Hints and indirect suggests.

E.g. Oh sir, she smiled, no doubt, Whene’er I passed her, but who passed
without/Much the same smile? This grew; I gave commands;
Then all smiles stopped together. There she stands/As if alive.

(This extract comes from the poem, My Last Duchess, where the Duchess
was murdered).

Puns Making puns is the deliberate use of double meanings. The effect
can be comic or serious.
E.g. Atomic lotion for hair fall-out
BMW beats the Bends (Benz)

Close-ups and long shots in print.

Synecdoche Part of an object is used represent the whole object.

E.g. I should have been a pair of ragged claws;
Scuttling across the floors of silent seas (a crab)

Metonymy Using association to refer to an object.

E.g. The kettle is boiling.
The pen is mightier than the sword.

Symbol An emblem or sign which, by custom and convention, represents concepts

and ideas.
The Cross
Three trees on the low sky
A ring

Allusions

Classical allusions There are often references to the myths of Greece and Rome in
English poetry. These are classical allusions.

Biblical allusions There are often references to the Bible in English poetry.
These are biblical allusions.

Devices from public speaking

Rhetorical question A statement put in the form of a question. No answer is expected.

E.g. Was this the face that launched a thousand ships/and burnt the topless
tower of ilium? (referring to Helen of Troy)

Climax A series of statements in rising order of importance.

E.g. I came; I saw; I conquered.
To strive, to seek, to find and not to yield.
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Wit and humour

Humour is mostly used in English literature to make a point, to expose weakness or vice, or to make
a fool of a person or an idea. It is only “funny” if one is not the victim of the attack or criticism. In
the following three uses of wit and humour, there is usually a serious purpose to the apparent
comedy.

Irony States the opposite of what the writer or speaker really means, or creates a
difference between appearance and reality. Irony insults someone by
complimenting them, or praises a situation that is in fact terrible. Situations can
also be ironic, if a person gets what he or she wants, but it’s a disaster!

The effect and purpose of irony is to mock someone, to criticise someone or to

show sadness in a situation that appears to be good.
An ironic tone is not sincere – the reader or listener must realise that the
opposite of what is actually said is what the speaker intends to say.

In a play, dramatic irony is created when the audience knows more about a
situation than the actors on stage do. In Macbeth, for example, all the
speculation about who killed Duncan is ironic, because the audience knows that
Macbeth and his wife committed the murder, not Malcolm and Donalbain.

Sarcasm Sarcasm is the expression of scorn and contempt. (The word comes from the
Greek sarkazein – to tear the flesh.) It is often expressed ironically, but the
purpose of sarcasm is to insult, ridicule and attack.

Satire Satire is a literary composition (formerly a poem) which exposes folly

(foolishness) and vice (crimes) to ridicule, scorn and criticism. (A good essay
topic for Strictly Ballroom would be to discuss the film as a satire, exposing,
criticising and ridiculing Barry Fife, Shirley Hastings and the Dance Federation.)
Satire can also be savagely sarcastic, such as when the writer Jonathan Swift
suggested viciously during the potato famine that the Irish peasants should be
encouraged to eat their children, which would save having to feed them. Irony,
sarcasm and parody are all used in satire.

There are some silly, playful and harmless forms of humour known as “the lowest form of wit”
which are very popular in English culture. Words associated with this kind of humour are ‘absurd’,
‘ludicrous’ ‘ridiculous’ and ‘farcical’.

Spoonerisms A slip of the tongue, reversing the first sounds in a pair of words.
E.g. Park car
Shoving leopard (loving shepherd)
Scan and Frott (Bictly Strallroom)

Malapropisms Using an incorrect word unintentionally

He is the very pineapple of politeness (pinnacle)
They were putrified with fear. (petrified)
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Puns (see ambiguity)

Facetiousness Jokes intending to be funny, but emerging as unsuitable.

Joking about age to old people, etc.

Farce Comedy based on very unlikely chains of events, or absurd disorganisation.

Both Fawlty Towers and Mr Bean are based on farce.

Caricature A representation (often a drawing) with a person’s most distinctive features

exaggerated for comic effect. Pete Marino, in Post Mortem, for instance, is
caricatured as a tough slob, and Shirley Hastings, in Strictly Ballroom, is
caricatured through emphasis on her make-up as false and superficial. The
purpose of caricature is to make a person look foolish. (In the above two
examples, caricature also makes the characters look threatening and dangerous).

Travesty A ridiculous or crude distortion. It is very similar in meaning to caricature. For

instance, having a Maori female actor play the lead in Hamlet, Prince of Denmark
would be, to some people, a travesty of Shakespeare. The intention of travesty
is mockery, and to show disrespect.

Burlesque Burlesque is often used as a synonym for travesty. It is writing or drama that
mocks a serious art form through ridicule or exaggeration.

Parody Parody is also a comic imitation of a serious work, but its intention is satirical.
(see below)
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Section 3

Elements of Style

Idioms

An idiom is an expression or a saying. It has a figurative meaning.

Examples: to keep your hat on
to let off steam
An idiomatic expression is a form of expression peculiar to a language.

Cliché (a hackneyed expression)

A cliché is a phrase or saying that has been used to often that it becomes boring and meaningless.
It has lost its full impact because it is no longer regarded as original or “fresh”.
Example: the use of the word nice
Live life to the full

Jargon
Jargon is the level of language employed and understood by a particular group joined through a
common interest. This often takes the form of special words, terms and expressions used by a trade,
profession, field of study, sport or exclusive group. People who do not operate in these specialised
fields will often find it difficult to understand the terminology.

Standard English

Standard English is the English that is generally accepted as correct. It is serious in purpose and
formal.

Colloquial language

Colloquial language is conversational expression not usually accepted in formal speech or writing. It
is informal, everyday expression and makes use of widely understood expressions (called
colloquialisms). A writer may adopt a colloquial register to create a casual tone.

Slang

Slang is used by a specific group of people. It can add colour to informal conversations. The
suitability of slang depends on the situation in which the speakers find themselves. It is a type of
popular language considered to be below the level of standard educated speech, in which new words
are created or words are used in a specific way.
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What is the difference between colloquial language and slang?

Slang expressions are usually not as widely understood or used as are

colloquial expressions. Colloquial expressions are likely to be
understood throughout the English speaking world, but slang
expressions are confined to a particular locality. Slang tends to be ‘in’
for a few years, then is lost. Colloquial expressions are familiar for
perhaps hundreds of years.

Emotive language

Emotive language is the use of words designed to evoke or express strong feelings in the reader or
listener.

Example: The new teacher was trusting versus ‘The inexperienced teacher was gullible.’

The italicised words in the second sentence are not impartial (neutral) but are meant to create an
emotional response in the reader. These words have built-in value judgements.
Consider the favourable and unfavourable connotations of words.

Fact and opinion

A fact is accepted and known to be true because there is supporting evidence to back up its
existence.

Example:

English is the most widely used language in the history of our planet.
One in every seven human beings can speak it. More than half the
world’s books are in English. English has as many as two million
words.

An opinion is an unproved belief, a view held as probable.

Examples: Nonetheless, let’s face it: English is a crazy language, which we take for granted.
‘Babewatch’ has a riveting storyline.

Watch out for opinions disguised as fact, especially in advertisements.

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Subjective writing

The author’s feelings or opinions about the subject or about a character are revealed to the reader.
The author becomes personally involved, may make judgements, and reveals, for example,
admiration, revulsion, fear or pleasure. [English in Context Book 4, page 87].

Example:

Science, in its execution, is something not exact. After all, the executors
are human, applying what is known in their research to arrive at a result
that occasionally is not (or rather, unexpected) – at least from the outset.

The vaccine development may have been the cause of the HIV epidemic is
too horrific to contemplate. In trying to do good, could we inadvertently
be causing harm?

Objective Writing

The writer stands back from the subject matter, remaining uninvolved and detached. Facts are
related and information is conveyed without the author’s own feelings, values or opinions being
revealed.

Example:

So what is involved in the cloning process? The word derives from Koln, a
Greek word meaning twig or slip, and the process of reproducing plants
from an original seedling or stock has been around a long time.
Agriculturists have been manipulating the genes of domestic animals and
plants by selective breeding for centuries – Charles Darwin describes the
process in Origin of Species but since ‘70s it has been possible to
reorganise genes at DNA level.

Diction

Diction refers to a writer’s word choice. It may be plain, descriptive, colloquial, emotive, etc.

Example:

‘Oh Dale!’ she breathed, as a tear glistened like a dewdrop on her dark
lashes. Her limpid blue eyes gazed up at him trustingly. She knew that
after the storms and sorrows of her past, she had at least found a refuge-
a-hero who would love her truly.
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The writer’s diction is clichéd and sentimental.

Register

We need to use different types of language to suit different situations. When we are talking
informally to our friends, we are relaxed in our speech. On the other hand, if we are delivering a
formal public address, our language needs to be polished and carefully prepared. It is not that one
type of language is ‘better’ than another: they are different.

An example of formal register:

The uncertainty as to your whereabouts added immeasurably to my

anxiety.

‘Register is the appropriate or inappropriate use of language. The suitability or unsuitability of

register depends on the speakers, the audience and the situation. In every act of communication,
whether spoken or written, the purpose of the writer and the type of audience/reader must be taken
into account’. [English in Context Book 2]

Intention

A writer will adopt a certain style depending on his/her intention. His style will vary depending on
whether his intention is to persuade, to inform, or to entertain.

Examples of writers’ intentions:

abuse mislead accuse instruct appease apologise

advocate slander praise belittle support encourage
broadcast agitate provoke condemn verify excuse
confuse attack urge criticise horrify glamorise
deceive celebrate startle inspire offend

The reader should consider the following when exploring the writer’s intention:

Source – where it is published (give reasons for your suggestions)

Reason – why it was written
Response – what response the writer expects from the reader
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Tone

Tone relates to the relationship between the writer (or speaker) and his/her subject matter.

Examples of words that describe tone:

abrupt angry boastful cheerful

courteous defiant kind mocking
pleading sarcastic vicious abusive
anxious commanding affectionate sceptical
confident arrogant thoughtful weary
eager bored aggressive blunt

gentle contemplative bitter stern

insulting determined cynical malicious
earnest enthusiastic modest gloomy
forceful polite hostile gracious
submissive melancholy infuriated tender
ominous vindictive persuasive passionate
affectionate relieved proud

Feeling

Feeling expresses the emotional state of the writer.

amazement anger adoration respect

awe bewilderment apprehension happiness
delight contempt charity doubt
disbelief depression desperation confusion
dread fear futility agitation
exasperation hostility humiliation tenderness
hatred pessimism nostalgia love
regret pity outrage sadness
satisfaction regard tranquillity surprise
revulsion admiration sympathy shock
bliss tolerance disgust wonder

Style

Style in the writer’s characteristic manner if expression. It is an umbrella term for the following
aspects:
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Register, diction, tone, intention, imagery, sentence structure, fact and opinion, emotive
expression, subjective and objective writing, jargon, colloquialism, figurative language,
paragraph structure

Every piece of writing has a certain style. Think of words as the clothing of ideas. Just as you wear
different clothes for different occasions, so a writer chooses a style to suit his purposes and his topic.

The style of a piece of writing may be neutral, simple, abstract, poetic, humorous, satirical, verbose,
melodramatic etc.

Elements of Style Activities

Read the attached texts and answer the questions that follow, for each text. Be as detailed as
possible in your responses.

1. Are there any examples of Idiom, Cliché or Jargon in the text? Quote to support your answer.

2. Is the attached text an example of formal or informal register? Quote to support your answer.
Are there any examples of slang? Quote.

3. Quote two examples of emotive language and explain the effect of the word choice.

4. Provide at least one example, if any, of a fact and opinion from the text. Give a reason for
your selection.

5. What is the intention of the text? Do you feel that the author has succeeded in this intention?
Give a reason for your answer.

6. What is the tone of the text? Quote to support your answer.

TEXT 1
He studied the sky. There were days when the ashen overcast thinned and now the standing trees
along the road made the faintest of shadows over the snow. They went on. The boy wasn’t doing
well. He stopped and checked his feet and retied the plastic. When the snow started to melt it was
going to be hard to keep their feet dry. They stopped often to rest. He’d no strength to carry the
child. They sat on the pack and ate handfuls of the dirty snow. By afternoon it was beginning to melt.
They passed a burned house, just the brick chimney standing in the yard. They were on the road all
day, such day as there was. Such few hours. They might have covered three miles.
He thought the road would be so bad that no one would be on it but he was wrong. They camped
almost in the road itself and built a great fire, dragging dead limbs out of the snow and piling them
on the flames to hiss and steam. There was no help for it. The few blankets they had would not keep
them warm.
 24

TEXT 2
Social networking has been one of the defining features of the 21st century. Statistics revealed that
close to 56% Americans have a profile on some form of social networking platform like Facebook,
Twitter etc. On the one hand, social networking allows people to communicate on a uniform, global
platform, both at a personal and professional level. It has proved to be a huge impetus for the e-
commerce industry and has made life easier for millions of people as several services are now offered
online. At the same time, issues have been raised about the lack of privacy and the increasing cases
of identity thefts on social network platforms. Not to mention the phenomenon of social network
addiction and bullying witnessed primarily among teenagers.

TEXT 3
Owning a pet from the pound or Animal Rescue League has many advantages. First of all, a child
feels good about rescuing an abandoned or abused animal and giving it a whole new life. Besides, if
the animals from the pound aren’t adopted right away, they might be put to sleep. Having a pet also
means lots of responsibilities. A child has to feed, clean up after, brush, and exercise the pet.
Another great advantage of having a pet from the pound is the price of these cute and cuddly
animals. Pets from the pound cost only a few dollars while pets at a fancy pet store can cost
hundreds of dollars.
Once you adopt a pet from the Animal Rescue League, it will quickly become a part of your family. If
you are thinking of adopting a pet, you might consider choosing a dog or a cat. Dogs and cats can
bring lots of happy times to a family, and they can be excellent companions for a person who lives
alone or someone who has lost a loved one. Dogs are also a wonderful source of protection. Cats are
funny, and they may help to calm people down when they are sad or mad.
Please consider adopting an animal. If you remember all of the advantages of adopting a pet from
the pound, you might find the bird, mouse, hamster, dog, or cat of your choice.

TEXT 4
Indians “world’s biggest readers”
Indians are the world’s biggest bookworms, reading on average 10.7 hours a week, twice as long as
Americans, according to a new survey.
The NOP World Culture Score index surveyed 30,000 people in 30 countries from December 2004 to
February 2005.
Analysts said self-help and aspirational reading could explain India’s high figures.
Britons and Americans scored 50% lower than the Indians’ hours and Japanese and Koreans were
even lower at 4.1 and 3.1 hours respectively.
R. Sriram, chief executive officer of Crosswords Bookstores, a chain of 26 book shops around India,
says Indians are extremely entrepreneurial and reading “is a fundamental part of their being”.
The NOP survey of 30,000 consumers aged over 13 saw China and the Philippines take second and
third place respectively in average hours a week spent reading books, newspapers and magazines.

Correct the following text, so that it is written in the correct style (underline your changes):

When writing a term paper, the one thing you’ve got to remember is to use authoritative sources.
These are vital if the paper is to persuade the intended audience. Reliable sources can be found
everywhere from the library down the street to the internet. Internet sources must be used
cautiously, since some sites are just run by wackos; nonetheless, some sites do provide quality
information. Once the writer has found her sources, she must remember to cite them properly in
 25

order to avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is bad. Citation styles vary across the disciplines, but they can
usually be figured out with a proper style manual.
 26

Section 4

Concord and correcting errors

Concord

The agreement between different words in a sentence, e.g. the agreement between the verb and the
subject.

E.g. I am I is
Subj verb subj verb

1. Using me and I

John, Paul and me went to the party.

John, Paul and I went to the party.

2. Singular subjects and singular verbs

The colour of the flowers were blue.

Singular plural
Subject verb should be singular
Colour was

The colour of the flowers was blue.

And

That boy, like all teenagers, love girls.

Singular plural
Subject verb should be singular
Boy loves

The boy, like all teenagers, loves girls.

 27

3. Collective nouns and verbs

The herd of cows were behind the fence.

Singular plural
Subject verb should be singular
Herd was

The herd of cows was behind the fence.

Note: When collective nouns function as a single unit, then the verb used must also be
singular

E.g. A swarm of bees lives in that tree.

Singular subj. singular
(one group) verb

However, if the individual members of the group are referred to, the plural form of the verb may
be used.

E.g. The team of players were responsible for the victorious season.
Plural subject plural verb
(many individuals)

4. ONE of = plural verb

Only One of + singular verb

Paul is one of the boys who do gym.

(All the boys do gym)
plural subject plural verb

Paul is the only one of the boys who does gym.

(Paul alone does gym.)
Sg. subj sg. verb

5. Everybody/everyone/somebody/someone/none
singular + singular verb

E.g. None of the teachers likes school

Sg. subj sg. Verb
 28

6. Neither … nor, either … or

These can be used with singular and plural subjects.
The verb should correspond with the subject closer to it.

E.g. Neither the boys nor the girl has arrived.

Sg. subj sg. verb

Neither the boys nor the girls have arrived.

plur subj plur verb

7. Participles ending in –ING or-ED, when introducing a sentence, should correspond

with the correct subject.

E.g. Walking down the stairs, the clock struck nine.

Participial phrase subj of walking?

Walking down the stairs, I heard the clock strike nine.

participle phrase subj of walking

8. Verbs that govern objects

E.g. She invited (Who?) my husband and/to the party.

This should read:

She invited my husband and (she invited) me to the party.

9. Prepositions that govern pronouns

E.g. Between you and I, the food was awful.

This should read:
Between you and (between) me, the food was awful.

10. Fewer and less

Fewer is used for things that can be counted.
Less is used for quantities.
E.g. I need fewer eggs this week.
She takes less sugar than he does.

11. Using ONE = everyone, people in general

The expression one is often too formal. Rather use people/we/you
e.g. One should not talk in class.
You should not talk in class.
We should not talk in class.

Note: If one is used – it must be used throughout the same SENTENCE or PARAGRAPH
 29

12. Avoid splitting INFINITIVE

Infinitives are words like to be, to eat, to sleep, to play, etc.

Infinitive
To gracefully walk, is a great accomplishment when you wear stilettos.

This should read:

To walk gracefully, is a great accomplishment when you wear stilettos.

13. Finite verbs

Each sentence must contain one finite verb. A finite verb is a verb with a subject.
Subject Pronouns Finite Verbs
(Present tense of to be) (Past tense of to be)

Singular
I am was
You are were
He/she/it is was

I am a male designer and I decided to approach you.

OR
Your being a male designer, I decided to approach you.
(You are a male designer and I decided to approach you)

Comma splice (comma join)

To splice – to join

A comma cannot be used to join two sentences. A semi-colon or a co-ordinating conjunction

should rather be used.

E.g. I hear the bell, I would not answer.

This should read:
I heard the bell; I would not answer
Or
I heard the bell and would not answer.

Ambiguity and ambivalence

Ambiguity is an unintended or accidental double meaning
Ambivalence is an intended or deliberate double meaning

E.g. In a Bangkok dry cleaning shop the following notice appeared:

Drop your trousers here for the best results (ambiguity)
This notice might be more appropriate to advertise a house of ill repute!
 30

In a magazine for medical students:

SKELETON FOR SALE. USE ONLY ONCE BEFORE (ambivalence)
(All skeletons can only be used once. We each have one life and one skeleton.
This advertisement refers to a model of a skeleton and was deliberately intended as a
joke).

Connotation and denotation

Denotation = actual meaning/simple meaning/literal meaning
Connotation= associative meaning

Connotation can be positive (figurative meaning) or negative (emotive meaning/suggestive

meaning/symbolic meaning)
E.g. white denotation = colour
connotation = virginity, purity, (Western culture)
death (Eastern culture)
 31

Section 5

Punctuation

Capital letters

 All sentences begin with a capital letter.

Example: The town gathered for the meeting.

 Proper nouns all have capital letters.

Example: Johannesburg, Margot

 Direct speech always begins with a capital letter even if it falls at the end of a sentence.
Example: Mary coughed loudly and then blurted out, ‘Say no more you silly people’.

 Brand means and registered trademarks use capitals.

Example: Coca cola, Braun

 Races of people, nationalities and languages should be capitalised.

Example: Jewish, Israeli, Moroccan, Arabic

Note: Nouns and verbs derived from proper nouns do not need capital letters, e.g. Americanism,
venetian blinds

 If a prefix is attached to a proper noun or adjective, the noun or adjective keeps it capital
letter.

Example: anti-South African, non-Methodist

Note: In the names of literary works, names of organisations, the prefix begins with a capital, e.g.
Anti-Abortion Organisation

The comma

Commas are used for the following:

 The separate items on a list.

Example: He yelled at Sharon, Jane, Simon and Sam after clearing up the horrific mess
they left behind.

 They are used where adjectives qualify the same noun.

Example: He was a tall, slim man.
 32

 They are used to separate repeated words.

Example: She was very, very beautiful.

 They separate adverbs when they intrude in a sentence.

Example: The saleslady, surprisingly, insisted on making the deal.

 Commas mark off a noun or pronoun in direct address.

Example: If, sir, I lose, I will never forgive you.
You can do better, Alex.

 They separate main and subordinate clauses.

Example: Although she was late, he still welcomed her politely.
Our garden, which is in dire need of attention, will be visited by a landscaper
soon.

 They are used before a conjunction introducing a main clause.

Example: I have listened to your opinion, but am still not convinced.
The situation is dangerous, but I trust your instincts.

Note: When the conjunction is and, the comma maybe omitted if the relation between the two
sentences is close.

Example: Anne rehearsed her act for months and is highly confident.

Note: We do not join independent clauses with a comma. A comma splice is formed if a
comma, instead of a full stop, semi-colon or suitable conjunction, is used to separate two
grammatically complete sentences.
The following two sentences are incorrectly punctuated:
Annie’s stories are amusing, they are full of lies.
I gave the pupils thirty sums to do, this kept them busy for over an hour.

 Commas are used to separate phrases.

Example: The child, seeing how deep the pool was, refused to jump in.

 They indicate parenthesis (extra information).

Example: His frightening experience, which almost cost him his life, left him a nervous
wreck.

NB: The commas may be substituted by dashes or brackets to mark off parenthesis.
 33

Note: Extra information marked off by commas is a non-defining clause. Remember to qualify
as a clause, it must contain a finite verb. A non-defining clause does not limit or define the main
clause, it merely adds more information.
Example: My youngest sister Glynis, loves the bush.

Restrictive or defining clauses are not marked off by commas because they are not parenthetic.
They do not merely add extra information, but are essential in giving the subject clear meaning.
Example: People who live in glass houses should not throw stones. (The adjectival clause
makes clear which kind of people are being spoken about)

Example: My sister who lives in London is studying law. (The suggestion is that I have
two sisters, but it is the one who is in London who is studying)

 Commas are used to avoid ambiguity.

Example: In 1998 I was told there had been a tornado in Umtata.
In 1998, I was told, there had been a tornado in Umtata.

 They mark off direct speech.

Example: “Before you leave,” said Jane, “You must see my new dress”.

Note: Do not use a comma before a reported speech clause. The following two examples are
incorrect.
She said, that she was happy to accept the terms.
I wonder, if I should have accepted too.

The semi-colon

The semi-colon marks a longer pause in a sentence than the comma, but is not as strong as the full
stop.

 Its most common use is to join two closely related sentences.

Example: Sharon arrived at the theatre early, she was the performer for the evening.

A comma is preferable when the clauses are very short and alike in form.
Example: Here today, gone tomorrow.

 Semi colons may be used to mark off main divisions in a sentence that already contains
many commas.
Example: Please purchase the following at Pick ‘n Pay: wors, ham, steak, cheese, milk,
yogurt, sunlight liquid and skip.

 Like the colon, the semi colon can be used to separate antithetical clauses.
Example: The distance is long; time is short.

The colon
 34

The colon tells the reader that what follows is closely related to the preceding clause.

 Use the colon after an independent clause to introduce a list.

Example: There are three kinds of cheese on offer: blue, cheddar and milk.

 It may be used to introduce an explanation or additional information.

Example: Food was scarce in the hostel that night: only four pupils managed to get
seconds.

Sharon had never felt so happy: Jason had declared his love.

Note: Do not use a colon to mark off a comment or explanation in the middle of a sentence.

 A colon may introduce a quotation.

Example: I often quote Oscar Wilde’s words on the subject: “We are all in the gutter, but
some of us are looking at the star”.

 The colon introduces direct speech (as in plays).

Example: Susan: Yes, you did!

 It marks the antithesis between two sentences more strongly than a semi colon would.
Example: To err is human: to forgive divine.

 It separates the hour from minutes.

Example: 10:45

 It separates a main heading from a division.

Example: Punctuation: the colon

The full stop

 The full stop is used to mark the end of a sentence

 It is used in abbreviations.
Example: Jan., Prof., Wed., cm., approx.

 Full stops do not follow abbreviations in which the first and last letters are given.
Example: Mr, Dr, St, Rd

 Academic qualifications are usually written without full stops e.g. BA

 35

Note: An acronym is an abbreviation in which there are no full stops and which can be
pronounced as a word. Example: UNISA, COSATU

In some abbreviations that are used frequently, the full stops have fallen away e.g. SABC, SPCA

 When an abbreviation falls at the end of a sentence, it is incorrect to add an extra full stop.

The dash

A dash separates parts of sentences, whereas a hyphen is used to join parts of words or words.

 Use a dash before or after a list if a collective words is used.

Example: I bought the following items of clothing – two vests, a pair of trousers, a t-shirt
and two skirts.
Cups, plates, mixers, spatulas – all sorts of kitchen ware was on display.

 A dash may introduce an explanation, amplification (parenthesis) or paraphrase of

what immediately precedes it.
Example: Climbing table mountain can be dangerous – two steep drop offs need careful
negotiation. (explanation)
Sharon won the race – despite her broken collar bone – in record time.
(parenthesis).

 It may be used to add an after-thought or comment to the end of the sentence.

Example: Sharon lost the race – given her lack of training, it was not surprising.

 It shows hesitation in speech.

Example: Uh-what-what did you say?

 It is used at the end of an uncompleted sentence.

Example: ‘But dear – ’

 It is used for dramatic pause.

Example: Peter was sitting upright behind his desk – dead.

 It can be used with other punctuation marks: a question or exclamation mark may be written
before the second dash.
Example: On the 25th of December – Christmas Day – we spent three hours working.

 It is used to introduce a paradoxical or humorous ending to a sentence.

Example: At the close of the prestigious event, Mark was honoured with the final prize – a
two litre Fanta bottle.

 It denotes an abrupt change of thought or abandonment of subject.

Example: I will support your effort – did you buy that book for me?

 It indicates the omission of a word or part of it when the use of the full word might offend.
Example: ‘B-off,’ she screamed and marched upstairs.
 36

The hyphen

 It is used to join two words to create a compound word.

Example of a compound noun: The ice-cream was delicious.
Example of a compound adjective: The ice-cream cake was delicious.

 It is used to combine a word with a prefix to create a new word.

Example: ex-policeman, pro-South African

 It is used to clarify the meanings of words.

Example: reform vs re-form, recover vs re-cover

 It helps avoid awkward juxtaposition of letters in a word.

Example: pre-eminent

 It indicates stammering
Example: ‘I w-want to g-g-get that st-story,’ she stammered.

Brackets

 Round brackets are used to indicate parenthesis.

Example: He showed me his book (a very interesting one), because I wanted to buy it.
If a complete sentence falls within brackets, the full stop will fall within the second bracket.
Example: (it had an interesting title.) I bought it.

 Square brackets are used to indicate unquoted material in a quotation – the writer’s
input to explain or clarify.
Example: ‘Almost 90 percent (of the pupils) did not do their homework.’

The question mark

 It is used at the end of a direct question and at the end of statements that are indirect
questions.
Example: You didn’t, did you?

 Question marks must be placed within quotation marks if they belong to the question.
Example: He then asked in an awful tone, ‘Why haven’t you eaten your meal?’

Question mark are placed outside quotation marks if the quotation is not a question but the
whole statement is.

The exclamation mark

 The exclamation mark should be limited to exclamations and exclamatory phrases.

Example: Get out! Good heavens!

Avoid using more than one exclamation mark.

 37

 It can be used to express sarcasm.

Example: You clever thing!

Ellipsis

 Ellipsis is used to indicate that words have been omitted from a sentence. If ellipsis falls at
the end of a sentence, the fourth dot will be the full stop.

 It is used to create suspense or a sense of expectation.

 If it is used at the end of a paragraph, the reader is expected to arrive at a conclusion as to

the outcome of events.

Italics

This refers to the slant type to make the words stand out.

 It is used to emphasise something.

Example: how dare you do this!

 It is used to accentuate a word or group of words.

Example: It’s the way you do it that matters.

 It is used to distinguish a word or group of words from the rest of the text

 It highlights foreign words.

Example: He has a certain savoir faire.

 It can be used as an alternative to capitals or quotation marks to indicate a title

Example: Shakespeare wrote Macbeth.

The apostrophe

 It is used to indicate omission (shows where letters have been left out of a word)
Example: I can’t (cannot) tolerate it anymore.
’99 (1999)

Contractions should be avoided in formal writing.

 It is used to indicate possession (shows that something belongs to someone)

Examples: the lady’s dress (singular)
the ladies’ dresses (plural)
the princess’s hat (singular)
the princesses’ hats (plural)
the dogs’ bones (plural)
 38

 The apostrophe can suggest possession by non-living objects or abstractions.

Example: We will follow Friday’s times.
The earth’s surface is rugged.

Note: Possessive pronouns do not take an apostrophe: theirs, hers, yours, ours, its
it’s does not indicate possession, but is a contraction of it is or it has.

 Add an apostrophe ‘s’ to the pronoun ‘one’ and to the compound pronouns ‘everybody’ and
‘everyone’
Example: Everybody’s cases were opened.
One should listen to one’s teacher.

 Most proper nouns ending with an ‘s’ take an apostrophe ‘s’.

Example: Mr Jones’s travels

St James’s Hotel needs to be renovated.

However, if the addition of and ‘s’ sounds awkward, just add the apostrophe after the ‘s’
Example: Ulysses’ travels sounded exciting.

 The names of classic and religious figures that end in ‘s’ take an apostrophe after the ‘s’.
Example: Jesus’ disciples or Moses’ commandments or Dickens’ novels

 Collective nouns are treated as singular so the apostrophe comes before the ‘s’
Example: the men’s change rooms, the children’s toys, people’s behaviour

 Use the apostrophe to form plurals of the letters of the alphabet.

Example: Mind your p’s and q’s
Or
Use it for the plurals of words which, not being nouns or pronouns, do not usually have a
plural form.
Example: He gets his had’s and have’s mixed up.

 The apostrophe should not be used with the following contractions:

The MPs earn too much.
The 1990s was an interesting period
 39

Question marks

 Single quotation marks are used for all quotations unless there is one quotation inside another.
The inside quotation will take double marks.

 They indicate the actual words of a speaker.

Example: He shouted at the top of his voice, telling her to ‘get lost’.

 They illustrate unusualness or doubtfulness or used to focus on words being used as

words.
Example: Don’t use slang expressions like ‘kids’ in your work.
The buzz word ‘empowerment’ appears frequently in the text.

Note: Avoid overusing quotation marks in your own writing.

 They introduce direct speech.

Example: ‘I’m tired of shopping,’ she grumbled.
(Even though the words spoken form a complete sentence, the full stop falls right at the end)

When direct speech is interrupted by a verb or saying, the interruption is marked off by
commas.
Example: ‘I hate shopping,’ the grumbled, ‘because I have so little money’.

 They can be used for the titles of poems, paintings, songs, short stories and titles of books.
 40

VISUAL ANALYSIS

Body language Innuendo Satire

Caricature Irony Setting
Context Parody Stereotype
Hyperbole Pun Verbal clues
Implication Rhetorical question Visual metaphor
Intention/message Sarcasm

Some of the most popular satirists of our day are cartoonists. A cartoon provides a fairly accessible
medium through which the cartoonist can make us think about the folly of a particular aspect of life.

Critical literacy includes the analysis of cartoons and advertisements.

In order to analyse a visual image you still need to break it down in the same way in which you
would analyse and understand a written piece of work.

1. Focus on the entire picture.

2. At whom is it aimed?
3. Why?
4. What figurative devices are being used?
5. Why?
6. What is the overall message?
7. How do we know this?
8. Did you break down every aspect of the visual and then put it back together again?
9. Are there any forms of prejudice in the visual?
10. How do we know this?
11. Make use of emotional ques in visual. Look at facial / body language.
12. Be aware of small print.
13. Focus on SQA
 41

COMMON ERRORS IN STYLE

CLICHÉS

As far as possible you should avoid the use of clichés. A cliché is an expression
which might have been neat and striking when it was first used, but which has
become dull and stale through constant use. Further, many writers use clichés
in contexts where they are not suitable. Here are a few examples:

Appeared on the scene; as good as gold; as sure as fate; blushing bride;

burning question; cheer to the echo; Dame Rumour, exception that proves the
rule; extend the olive branch; grasp the nettle; the happy pair; irony of fate;
last but not least; long arm of coincidence; pandemonium reigned supreme; the
scenes he loved to well; in these troublous times; an ugly situation; more
sinned against than sinning; it was not to be; leave no stone unturned; to spell
suffering; pencil thin; velvet smooth; as white as a sheet.

Your daily newspapers are a ready source of clichés. Here are two sentences containing clichés,
taken from the sporting section of a local paper.

 The champion was as cool as a cucumber as he served for the match.

 Excitement reigned supreme in the final minutes of the game.

Match up the clichés in the left-hand column with their correct meanings in the right-hand column.

CLICHES MEANINGS
To keep one’s nose to the grindstone To be in charge
To put one’s food down To make a peace overture
To rest on one’s laurels Someone treacherous
To rule the roost To work extremely hard
To show a clean pair of heels To be content with past successes
To skate on thin ice Having the same faults
A snake in the grass To act dangerously
A storm in a teacup To run away
Tarred with the same brush A great fuss over nothing
To hold out an olive branch To take a firm stand
 42

A Crime Full of Clichés

Write down the clichés from the following dialogue between the two robbers, Jack and Bill.

Jack: I could hardly believe my eyes. I was almost at the end of the tether when I realized
that we could get into the jeweller’s through an air-vent. Do you want to have a finger
in the pie, Bill?

Bill: Well, we can’t let a chance like that slip through our fingers, can we?

Jack: You’ve hit the nail on the head. If we strike while the iron is hot, we can grab the
chance of a lifetime.

Bill: I’ll leave no stone unturned in planning a safe getaway. We’ll be out of there in the
twinkling of an eye.

Jack: Are you sure that you’ve considered all the angles?

Bill: I’ll tell you man-to-man. We’re both in the same boat and I’ll make sure we don’t get
our fingers burnt this time.

Cliché Conversions

Convert all the clichés into your own words.

Old Mick: G’day, Fred. You still alive and kicking? What are you doing these days?

Old Fred: I’m at a loose end, but I suppose at eighty-two one is lucky to be able to keep the wolf
from the door. I’m certainly not living in the lap of luxury.

Old Mike: Maybe I can lend a helping hand? I’m managing to keep my head above water with
the occasional odd job. There are plenty around.

Old Fred: Yes, I’d like to get my teeth into some work.

Old Mike: Well, don’t let the grass grow under your feet. Go and see Doctor Gordon. Her
gardener has just left her high and dry.
 43

MIXED METAPHORS

 Figurative language often enlivens communication. However, when

metaphors are mixed and images are distorted the clarity of communication
suffers. Here is an example of mixed metaphors:

An avalanche of commercials in the programme nearly drowned the

viewers

Notice that an avalanche image is mixed with a drowning image. The

sentence can be improved by modifying their metaphor so that it matches
the other.

An avalanche of commercials in the programme nearly buried the viewers

 Sometimes, however, clear meaning can only be achieved by omitting one or more of the
metaphors. Thus,

We can see the light at the end of the tunnel with regard to the spiralling costs of colour TV
sets

Becomes much clearer and neater as:

We can foresee an end to the spiralling costs of colour TV sets

Exercise

Rewrite the following sentences so that images are undistorted.

1. You can’t expect to burn the candle at both ends and still avoid upsetting the apple cart.

2. Red tape in the industry is excessive and cannot be expected to bite the dust for quite a few
years yet.

3. Our aim is to give our young people’s minds a chance to rub shoulders with older, wiser
heads.

4. Those who poke their noses into other people’s business are likely to have their fingers burnt.

5. He has a chip on his shoulder that could flare up at any moment.

6. Since all of us are in the same boat, we had better start coming to heel.
 44

Rewrite the following sentences correctly, avoiding particularly the use of mixed metaphors.

a) One speaker claimed that the swelling tide of multiple stores was cutting the ground from
under the feet of the small shopkeeper.

b) As long as we have our backs to the wall, we must cloak our actions in a veil of secrecy.

c) A storm of interruptions at the beginning of the meeting was nipped in the bud by the arrival
of the police.

d) Replying to his critics, the Minister pulled to pieces al the alleged pitfalls in the Government’s
proposed scheme to deal with the housing problem.

e) The spy’s hopes of a fair trial were shipwrecked by the mud of abuse that was hurled at him.

f) Do not stab me in the back by letting the cat out of the bag, especially when I am not present.

g) Very few of us realise how quickly the sands of time roll onwards.

h) One’s vision is now being entangled by metal wires which stretch from pylon to pylon as far
as the eye can see.

i) The advancing chariot of civilisation has enervated the centuries-old influence of the African
witch-doctors.

j) A cloud of despair engulfed the countenance of the old lady when Sheila’s avalanche of
questions descended upon her.

3. Say whether you consider the word in italics is appropriate in inappropriate in each of the
following expressions, and give a reason for your answer:

A spark of humour; a lame excuse; the head of a procession; the eye of a needle; the foot of
a column; a branch of learning; a run on a bank; a stony heart; the mouth of a river; an iron
constitution; the teeth of a saw; a golden wedding’ a dead loss; a ray of hope; the leg of a
chair; the root of a word; a web of lies; a heated discussion; a light heart; a flight of fancy.

TAUTOLOGY AND REDUNDANCY

 45

Unnecessary Words and Expressions

Tautology is the saying of the same thing twice over in different words. For example: ‘In my opinion,
I think the unemployment problem can be solved’. In this case, either ‘In my opinion’ or ‘I think’ is
redundant. You should avoid unnecessary repetition of this kind.

EXERCISES

1. Show, by reference to the meaning of the word in italics in each of

the following expressions, that the adjective or adverb preceding it is unnecessary:

A strange phenomenon ; a fresh beginner ; a new innovation ; a free gift; a joint partnership;
a final conclusion ; a total annihilation ; in unbroken continuity ; the future outlook ; strictly
impartial ; perfectly identical ; continually recurrent.

2. Rewrite the following sentences correctly, by omitting the words and expressions that you
consider to be unnecessary:

a) All of these games must finish by 7p.m. in the evening.

b) You are absolutely right when you say that there is a speed limit on this road to which
all drivers should respect.

c) My work is as equally important as yours, but, however, I do admit that yours requires
much more pensive thoughts.

d) I shall have much pleasure in accepting your kind invitation to the dance on 14th March.

e) As mutual co-operation seemed impossible between the two directors, one of them
resigned from his position.

f) Being as it was only 1.30pm when he returned back from lunch, he

seized the opportunity to read about the immigrants into this country
from abroad who had come here from other countries.

g) The veteran soldiers, all of whom had grown old in the army, surprised
us by not using spectacles for the purpose of reading.

h) Up until a few years ago, a refrigerator was not considered to be a definite and
absolute necessity in every home.

i) I am doubtful as to whether he will return back from work in time to help and give us
aid in facing up to these problems.
 46

j) If Celia had have shown me the questions she had to do for homework, I could have
explained to her that it was completely wrong to write an answer to the second
question that exceeded more than 200 words.

Remove the Tautologies

Many public figures in the media and elsewhere are sometimes guilty of tautology. Most of the
examples beneath are from the utterances of well-established communicators. See whether you can
correct the errors.

1. I’ve had to change my mental thinking. (Football commentator)

2. I have already indicated the situation in relation to the overseas ships bringing fuel to this
country from other parts of the world. A satisfactory arrangement has now been made
because of my direct intervention, by myself, personally …. (State Minister)

3. The offender escaped on foot by running. (Radio newsreader)

4. The unemployed who haven’t got a job … (leader of the Opposition)

5. We’ll see if we can get the exact facts. (Radio commentator)

6. He left the country briefly for a short time. (Radio commentator)

7. Everybody has unanimously agreed with the umpire’s decision. (Television commentator)

8. There has been some new innovations. (Prime Minister)

9. Let me repeat that again. (Television sports commentator)

10. Television has a lot of future potential. (President of the Australian broadcasting Tribunal)

11. There are so many vacant gaps to be filled. (Prominent playwright)

12. It was a chance coincidence. (Television commentator)

13. The government does not consider the explanation adequate enough.
(Politician)

14. Our new young star will be elevated up to first grade. (Football commentator)

15. No company should have the entire monopoly. (Businessman)

16. The soldiers had returned back to their own territory. (Newsreader)

17. The union has no false illusions about support from its own members. (Union leader)

18. There are several past precedents for the government’s actions. (Politician)
 47

19. The future prospects of our client are excellent. (Industrial reporter)

20. He was doing his club a bad disservice. (Television commentator)

CIRCUMLOCUTION AND VERBOSITY

‘Circumlocution’ comes from the Latin circum (‘around’) and loqui/locutus (‘to speak’). Thus
‘circumlocution’ means ‘talking around the point’. ‘Verbosity’ comes from the Latin verbosus (‘full of
words’), which in turn is derived from verbum (‘word’). ‘Verbosity’ means ‘the use of an unnecessary
number of words’.

When sentences are longwinded and contain unnecessary words, the writer is guilty of circumlocution
or verbosity. For example: ‘At the present time she has her abode in a rural environment’. This
sentence could be written much more simply: ‘Now she lives in the country’.

KILLER DOGS AT LARGE

Look at the comic strip below. Find an example of circumlocution and rewrite in simple terms. (Note
that one word has been misused).
 48

Rewrite

The following sentences contain examples of circumlocution and verbosity. Rewrite the sentences in
simple English.

1. Because of inclement weather conditions the builders desisted from their labours.

2. The traveller decided to fortify his constitution with good food.

3. The teacher was made the recipient of a new roll-book.

4. The severe injuries sustained by the motorist necessitated the summoning of a general
practitioner.

5. The child was attached near his place of residence by a savage member of the canine species.

6. The motorist was arrested by a law-enforcement officer because he had partaken of too much
liquid refreshment.

7. No information is available from employers as to the likelihood of a reduction in working hours

for union members in the near future.

8. After a nocturnal rest, we partook of the morning repast prepared by the cook.

9. An early investigation by the company’s director as to where the responsibility for the loss lies,
is not beyond the bounds of possibility.

10. It is anticipated with reasonable certainty that there will be a cessation of hostilities between
the two countries.

11. The listener found himself unable to believe his auditory faculties.

12. The accident has necessitated an extension of travelling time for all vehicles.

13. The guardians of the law were making enquiries as to the whereabouts of the two
malefactors.

14. There will be a postponement in the departure time of the train.

15. A cessation of work by car employees has been avoided by the promptness of the decision by
the management to increase the workers’ monetary supply.
 49

AMBIGUITY

A sentence that has two or more different meanings is said to be ambiguous. The word itself derives
from the Latin ambi (‘both ways’) and agree/actus (‘to act’). The incautious use of a word with a
double meaning or the misplacing of a phrase or clause within a sentence can create doubt as to
what meaning you really intend to communicate.

Sometimes a degree of unintentional humour is introduced through ambiguity, as many of the

following sentences show.

Exercise

Rewrite the following sentences, eliminating the ambiguity in each one as you
go.

1. Competent lady, 31, with little dog, seeks post.

2. I saw the thief enter the room through the keyhole.

3. Blue Heeler for sale, will work cattle and stop to whistle.

4. They were happy to find a number of small huts coming down the side of the mountain.

5. Another Pacific country was sending two DC3s to carry a full military pipe-band and other
soldiers and two submarines each with a crew of thirty.

6. The bride was given away by her father in a full-length blue satin dress with flaring bodice.

7. Auction: Lot 7 for Mr Proust who is leaving the locality (unless sold by private treaty).

8. After adding herbs to the saucepan, sit on a hot plate and simmer till satisfied.

9. The pilot had a narrow escape when a wingtip crashed through the cockpit narrowly missing
his head. This had to be removed before he could be released.

10. When he knocked on the door, the landlady came downstairs in a night-dress and opened it
for him.

11. TO RENT: small residence with two bedrooms, bathroom, kitchen and outside toilet, at present
occupied by owner.

12. A sheepdog was among the people barking at the Prime Minister.

13. So he spoke unto his sons saying, ‘Saddle me the ass’, and they saddled him.

14. Position as daily help wanted by respectable woman (Sundays excepted).

 50

15. FOR SALE: new electric blanket. Owner leaving. Deep pink colour.

16. At the Rialto theatre a small baby was needed for a scene in a play. A
message was sent to Phyllis the theatre nurse: ‘Please have a baby by nine
o’clock tomorrow morning’.

17. The tenants were forced to leave their houses through unsafe cracks in the walls.

MALAPROPISMS

Mrs Malaprop a character from Sheridan’s play. The Rivals, was notorious for her misuse of the
English language. For example, she spoke of ‘a derangement of epitaphs’ when she meant ‘an
arrangement of epithets’.

(Look up ‘derangement’ and ‘epitaph’)

Foreigners are often guilty of using malapropisms because they have chosen the incorrect word from
the dictionary. A foreigner might write or say, ‘The medal of the Olympic champion loitered around
his neck’. This mistake occurs because one of the dictionary definitions of ‘loiter’ is ‘hand around’.

1. Explain how the following malapropisms occurred:

a) Oom Gysbert van Tonder wished to elicit all his savings from the post office.

b) While making a cake for Mr Vermaak. Pauline beat the egg-white until it was trivial and
fluffy.

c) Johnny Coen had his trousers dry- cleaned and urged before he went visiting.

d) They finished their coffee and left their vacuous cups on the table.

e) Ask the maid to lucid the table.

f) Give me a good miscellany of sweets.

g) The wind is equitable, so we can set sail.

 51

2. Malapropisms can also arise from words which sound the same. Correct he malapropisms in
these sentences:

a) Jurie Steyn was told that civic servants must be polite to the public.

b) The equestrienne became historical when a mouse ran across her room.

c) Johnny Coen was most upset when we made elusions to Pauline and her beauty.

d) Her luxurious hair hung down her back and was much admired by the young men of
the Groot Marico.

e) ‘I hate the proscribed books which I have to teach’, said Mr Vermaak.

MISCELLANEOUS SENTENCES FOR CORRECTION

Final Revision Exercises

From the sentences below quote an example of (i) malapropism (ii) ambiguity (iii) colloquialism
(iv) split infinitive (v) tautology.

Quote only the relevant word(s), not the whole sentence:

a) Surely the universal prayer of all men today is for peace?

b) I shall do my best to illiterate the whole unsavoury business from my memory.

c) No one would find it easy to clearly express his views on this abstruse subject.

d) Even his former antagonists admitted that the mission had been a swinging success.

e) Frank told Peter that he was not in any way responsible for the accident in which they were
involved.
 52

The Arrangement of Words

A change in the order of the words in a sentence may result in a change of meaning.

Exercise

Improve the arrangement of each of the following sentences:

a) You cannot realise how happy I was when I read of the presentation made to you in the
newspaper.

b) This kind of hammer is used for demolition work, having a large head and a long handle.

c) I correspond with a friend who lives in Nigeria every week.

d) Everyone in our home helps with the clearing of the table after supper, including father.

Say of each sentence whether it contains a malapropism, a cliché, a euphemism, or slang. Then put
its intended meaning into straight forward language.

i) He arrived at the psychological moment.

ii) My dog was put to sleep.
iii) His motor cycle did a ton.
iv) He underwent a cartridge operation.
v) They did it just for kicks.
vi) They will leave no stone unturned to find the solution.
vii) The firm dispensed with his services.

Write down the objection to the word or expression in italics in each of the following sentences, and
rewrite the sentences in an improved form:

a) My brief is he’s downright crackers.

b) I must acquaint you with the fact that the man had been drinking heavily before the accident.

c) I beg to inform you that we have now received the goods which you forwarded to us on 2nd
April.

d) All through the night they wandered in the woods with the mournful sighing of the wind
singing in their ears.

e) I’m not frightfully keen to have Rosaline Jones in our boat.

f) The final completion of the work is scheduled for 3rd July.

g) Our culinary department has every modern convenience.

 53

h) An American has smashed the world’s record for the 1000 metres.

i) These people are less passive than you think, especially when they are confronted by an
enemy force; they attach themselves.

j) It came as a bolt from the blue to me when I received £2 for being the first to solve the
crossword puzzle.

k) We must face up to the situation bravely.

l) It seemed strange to me that he had been estranged from his parents for over a year.

SUMMARY SKILLS

ALWAYS USE YOUR OWN WORDS

1. USING ‘UMBRELLA TERMS’

a) The oats, wheat, barley, and rye were ripening.

b) One window of the greengrocer’s shop was filled with red and green apples, ripe pears
with speckled skins, oranges piled high in red pyramids, great, juicy plums, and yellow
bananas.

c) At the far end of the garden he had planted beetroot, parsnips, turnips, swedes and
potatoes.

d) Crisp, curling lettuce, sliced tomatoes, juicy rings of cucumber, and green-white onions
filled his plate.

e) Farming in the countries of Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk is chiefly arable.

f) All though the cold months of June, July and August corn is ripening slowly.

His daughter Mary, his three sons Paul, John and David, his wife Elizabeth, and his
mother and father were all seated ready for the harvest supper.

h) Cows, sheep, hens, dogs, cats, and tame rabbits where everywhere.

i) Someone had maliciously damaged the bridle, reins, saddle, traces, girth and collar.
 54

j) The bowl was a mass of sunny daffodils, purple, tulips, variegated pansies of every hue,
and creamy primroses.

a) Story published in successive parts

b) Sign one’s name on the back of a cheque
c) Reduce in strength by the addition of water
d) One prone to cause panic
e) Eager desire for honour and advancement
f) Taking place every two years
g) Kill every tenth man
h) To dig out of the ground a human body
I) extremely loquacious or talkative
j) Put off to a later date

1. RECASTING SENTENCES

Wherever possible, sentences must be simplified so that phrases do the work of clauses, and
single words replace phrases.

Clause: Cold water which was blown back from the hose, was trickling into our collars.
Phrase: Cold water from the hose was trickling into our collars.
Word: Cold hose water was trickling into our collars.

2. EXERCISE

Make shorter versions of the following sentences, recasting them so as save words.

a) There is no doubt at all that the couplings, which were made of brass and were very
heavy, felt to us as if they had been moulded out of metal that was a cold as ice.

b) Water that looked unusually black would have been forming puddles in the narrow
passage-ways of the City, and I would now suppose that both our hands and also our
faces were as black as the water in the puddles looked.

c) Things such as these were so unimportant as to be considered non-existent, and

occurred every single night.
 55

3. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Similes should be omitted and elaborate metaphors and other figures of speech simplified.

e.g. He was sitting straight up in bed and rocking from side to side as though the bed were
on a rough road: the knotted edges of the counterpane were his reins: his invisible
horse stood in a shadow beyond the bedside candle. Over a white flannel nightshirt he
was wearing a red waistcoat with walnut-sized brass buttons. The over-filled bowl of
his pipe smouldered among his whiskers like a little, burning haystack on a stick. At the
sight of me, his hands dropped from the reins and lay blue and quiet, the bed stopped
still on a level road, he muffled his tongue into silence, and the horse drew softly up.

This can be shortened by simplifying or omitting figurative language.

“Grandpa was sitting up, rocking as if the bed were on a rough road. He was wearing a
fed waistcoat over his nightshirt and smoking his pipe, but he stopped pretending to
drive horses when he saw me”.

Exercise

By simplifying all the figurative language, rewrite the following description. State at the end the
exact number of words you have used.

The castle, which was grey and forbidding, stood in a commanding position on the cliff-top, like a
sentinel or watch or a coastguard peering through the mist and spray tow here the sky merged with
the sea. It was indeed almost impregnable, for the cliff was high and precipitous, almost as sheer
as the damp stone walls of the battlements above, and the rocky coast was so treacherous that no
captain in his right mind would have attempted a landing on that shore, not even when the sea was
as calm as a mill-pond, which was rare enough on that wild and stormy coast.

4. GENERALISING

Sum up all unimportant detail, so that the general point is clearly stated, but the details are
omitted.

e.g. in the course of one typical evening’s television viewing we may see a travel film, a
further instalment of a regular “soap opera”, two or three cartoons, a Western film, a
crime serial, a comedy programme, a competitive quiz and a panel game. Serious news
or comment and anything making intellectual demands on the viewer will form a
comparatively small part of the evening’s viewing. (65 words)

This could be summarised:

Most of a typical evening’s television programmes are light entertainment: serious items are
comparatively few. (15 words)
 56

Exercise

Generalise from the detail in the following passage, so that one main impression of London is
clearly expressed.

The documentary programme about London presented a wealth of impressions of Britain’s

capital city. Three features, however, seemed to stand out particularly. From the shots of
stations like Victoria, the viewers gained a vivid impression of the London rush-hour – that
mass of people, old, young, fast, slow, smart and dowdy, merging into a vast, depressing
crowd each person in a dark suit and carrying raincoat or rolled umbrella and evening paper,
hurrying on relentlessly with blank faces, apparently without thinking what they were doing or
why. They showed neither joy nor disgust at it, simply acceptance.

PROPAGANDA TECHNIQUES

Propaganda is present to an extent in almost everything we read/observe and listen to. It may be
socially desirable or, at the opposite extreme, dangerous, but whatever form it takes it should be
recognised for what it is.

One is gullible where propaganda is concerned because it tends to appeal to the emotions rather
than to reason. It may result in people accepting ideas or benefits they would reject outright were
they presented in the light of calm, dispassionate reason. Propagandists manipulate favourable or
unfavourable responses to nations, races, religions, ideals, economic and political policies, motor
cars, jeans, soup, toothpaste, cigarettes, wine and the myriad other products available in a
capitalistic society. It is in the interests of each citizen to know how propagandists work.

The common devices include:

a) NAME CALLING (Bad names) – encourages one to form a judgement without examining the
evidence upon which it is based. This device is used by the propagandist to colour attitudes
towards the individuals, groups, policies, races etc. he is opposed to.

Common examples: Fascists, dictator, Marxist, Communist, outside agitator, trade unionist,
rabblerouber, fat.

b) GLAD NAMES: (Glittering Generalities) – appeals to one’s admiration for love, generosity and
brotherhood by associating words like freedom, liberty, trust, honour, social justice, progress
etc. with the propagandist’s cause. It stimulates one to accept and approve a cause, ideology
etc. without examining the evidence.

c) PLAIN FOLKS: Propagandist identifies himself with his target group. The intention is to
create the sense of a bond based on a common interest.

Common examples: politicians shake hands and “kiss” babies at election times.
 57

d) TRANSFER: Identifies a personality or institution respected and admired by people with a

product or a cause.

Common examples: The flag or cross etc. is associated with a policy, ideology, product etc.

e) TESTIMONAL: A famous sportsman, TV or movie personality etc. Endorses a product, person

or policy. Counter-testimonials are also utilised at times. This device is used to encourage
people to accept that “if it is good enough for Sophia it is good enough for me”.

f) BAND WAGON: Appeals to the need to “follow the crowd”. The theme in this approach is
“Everybody’s doing it so it must be OK!” Appeals are often directed to groups e.g. Blacks,
Whites, Flemish speakers, Catholics, Methodists, Muslim to arouse and harness fears,
prejudices and for ideals common to a group.

g) OMMISSION: (CARD STACKING) - This is the most difficult device to detect. The
propagandist resorts to deceitful activities to win support.

Common examples: omits facts from reports; under-emphasises or over-emphasises;

creates a smokescreen to divert attention from an embarrassing matter; introduces a red-
herring to confuse the search for facts.

1. In pairs discuss the message each of the posters is conveying. Using your notes on
propaganda as a guide, determine the techniques used by the producers of the posters to give
their message across.

2. How do the poems contradict the themes of the posters?

3. You are a politician or a leader of an organisation. You wish to convince your followers of a
point you feel strongly about. Design a poster that puts that point of view across. It must
demonstrate an understanding of emotive language and the techniques of propaganda.
(30 marks)

First World War Recruiting Posters First World War Recruiting Posters
 58

‘Blighters’ The General

The House is crammed : tier beyond tier they ‘Good morning; good morning!’ the General said
grin When we met him last week on ur way to the
And cackle at the Show, while prancing ranks line.
Of harl9ots shrill the chorus, drunk with din. Now the soldiers he smiled at are most of ‘em
‘We’re sure the Kaiser loves our dear old Tanks!’ dead,
And we’re cursing his staff for incompetent
I’d like to see a Tank come down the stalls, swine.
Lurching to rag-time tunes, or ‘Home, sweet ‘He’s a cherry old card,’ grunted Harry to Jack
Home’. As they slogged up to Arras with rifle and pack.
And there’d be no more jokes in Music-halls
To mock the riddled corpses a round Bapaume. But he did for them both by his plan of attack.

HOW TO READ AN ADVERT

It is sometimes useful to ask a series of questions

About an advertisement in order to make sense of its
Meaning. The questions below will help you
Understand how an advert works:

WHAT IS IT SAYING? THE LANGUAGE OF THE AD

Reading the image: what’s in the picture?

What can you tell about the age, sex, class, race of different people shown in the ad from?

 Clothing, facial expression, the direction of their eyes – who or what are they looking at?
 Body language – the way they are posed, grouped, or what they are doing
 Other objects featured prominently in the ad, and what do they tell us?

Where is the ad set?

 Where is it supposed to be – and how do you know?

 What can you see in the background, and what does it suggest?

What’s the product?

 What kind of product is being sold?

 Where is the product placed in the frame – if at all?
 What can you tell about it from other elements in the ad?

What visual techniques does this involve?

 Drawing, animation, still or moving photography, or just graphics?

 Is it black and white or colour? How has colour been used, and what effect does it crate?
 59

Use of the camera in print ads and TV commercials?

 Where was the camera placed to take the photograph?

 What kind of shot has been used, and what effect does this create?
 What variety of short and camera movement do you notice – what effect does this create?
 Is this high pressure or low pressure advertising i.e. “hard sell” or “soft sell”?

The text of the advertisement

Brand name: of the product: what does it suggest?

Slogan: How does it work? How does it relate to the images?
Copy in print ads and soundtracks in TV or radio commercials:
 What does it say about the product?
 What kind of language does it use – and who is it talking to?
 What kind of music is sued, and who might it appeal to? What kind of atmosphere or mood
does the music convey?
 What sort of voice-over is used? What tone of voice or mood does the voice convey?

WHO IS IT TALKING TO? THE AUDIENCE OF THE AD

Who is the ad aimed at?

How can you tell - from the choice of images?

- from the product
- from text/soundtrack?

Where might the ad be seen?

If print: - what sort of publication, aimed at which readers?
- where might you buy the publication?
- who else might see it?

If TV or radio: - when and where would it be scheduled?

- Alongside which programmes?
- At what time of day?
- In which geographical areas?

HOW WS IT MADE, BY WHOM? THE INDUTRY BEHIND THE AD

Who was it made for?

What can you tell about the producers of the product itself?

Why was it made?

Can you tell anything about the thinking behind the ad?
 60

WHAT DOES IT REPRESENT? THE MESSAGE OF THE AD

What overall messages does this ad give?

What roles, models or stereotypes are represented in the ad?

What ideas, lifestyle or desires does the ad seem to suggest?

What values are associated with the product?

CRASH COURSE OF BLUNDERS

MIXED METAPHORS As the new business venture had firm foundations, it was launched
with success.
Ships don’t have foundations, buildings can’t be launched.
Correct: The new business venture had firm foundations which were
successfully built on.

ELLIPSIS He gave me more than you.

Words left out create ambiguity.

Correct: He gave me more than you did.

REDUNDANCY Unnecessary words: 3 types

That book is adequate enough. TAUTOLOGY

Correct: That book is adequate.

She eyed him with a look of contempt. PLEONASM

Correct: She eyed him with contempt.

It is undeniably to be deprecated that a high percentage of our
compatriots are unable to procure the basic nutritional substances.
VERBOSITY

Correct: It is unacceptable that many South Africans cannot buy essential

foods.

AMBIGUITY Unintentional double meaning.

They are discussing crime in the Senate.
I have hunted and shot myself, so I know what it is like.
 61

MISRELATED PARTICIPLE The participle is related to the wrong subject.

After eating a quick breakfast, the car arrived for us.

Correct: After we ate a quick breakfast, the car arrived for us.
(Put the correct subject back into the sentence)

MALAPROPRISM An incorrect word is used which has some similarity in sound to the
intended one.
He was accused of deformation of character. (defamation)
Good sense will avail. (prevail)

SPLIT INFINITIVE It is unacceptable to occasionally split your infinitive, even if it is

something you want to often do!

CORRECT USE OF I object to your smoking. (Correct)

GERUNDIVE (It is the smoking, not you, that I object to)

LIKE AND AS ‘Like’ is a preposition used to compare two nouns.

e.g. She is like her mother. (Correct)
‘As’ is a conjunction comparing two actions/verbs.
e.g. She writes as John does. (Correct)

CORRECT DEGREES OF This is the better of the two pages. (Correct) (Not best)
COMPARISON This is the most ideal home. (Incorrect)
This is the ideal home. (Correct)
(There are no degrees of comparison for certain words, e.g. ideal,
unique, eternal, infinite etc.)

EACH OTHER/ONE ANOTHER They looked at each other in amazement (two people)
They looked at one another in amazement (more than two)

PRACTICE/PRACTISE The rugby practice was cancelled (noun)

He was practising handstands (verb)
Have you renewed your licence yet? (noun)
I must license my car! (verb)

WHO/WHOM “Who” is used when referring to the subject of the verb, or after a
preposition.
e.g. The girl who was absent has measles.
subj verb
“Whom” is used when referring to the object of the verb, or after a
preposition.
e.g. The girl whom you mean has measles.
obj subj verb
e.g. To whom were you speaking?
Prep
 62

COMMA SPLICE This error is when two sentences are joined by a comma, when a
full stop, or a semi-colon, or a conjunction should have been used.
e.g. I would like to speak to my brother, he is the expert.
Correct I would like to speak to my brother, he is the expert
The semi-colon is used to indicate a link in meaning between the
two statements)
Correct I would like to speak to my brother as he is the expert.
Correct I would like to speak to my brother. He is the expert.

APOSTROPHE The apostrophe is never to be used before an “s” in a plural.

eg. Please collect my photos. (Wrong)

ITS/IT’S The dog chased its tail. (Correct)

The possessive adjective does not take an apostrophe.
It’s time to go. (Correct contraction of “it is”)

FINITE VERB Sentences without finite verbs do not make sense.

e.g. Walking along contentedly, arm in arm, gazing into the shop
windows to look at our reflections.
Correct We were walking along contentedly, arm in arm, gazing into the
shop windows to look at our reflections.

AND/BUT “And” and “but” are used as conjunctions to join two main clauses
in a compound sentence. It is wrong to start a sentence with “and”
and “but” “or” “yet”.

CORRECT CASE John and I saw the film. Paul met John and me there.
OF PRONOUN subj subj subj obj obj

PRONOUN Don’t mix pronouns in a sentence.

CONCORD Correct One should learn by one’s mistakes.

SUBJECT/VERB Where two nouns form one idea, treat as singular.

CONCORND e.g. Bacon and eggs is what I ordered.
The poet and statesman is dead.

Where the noun looks plural, but is actually singular.

e.g. Good news has come this morning.

‘Either’, ‘neither’, ‘none’, ‘each’, ‘every’, all take singular verbs

e.g. Either he or his brother is no blame.
Each of the boys asks for his present.
None of the boys was there.
Every dog and cat was inoculated.
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When subjects are enlarged by ‘as well as’, ‘with’, ‘besides’

‘accompanied by’, the verb agrees with the first subject:
e.g. The mayor, accompanied by his wife and children, was there.
A man with his dog has come.

Subjects indicating quantity or amount take a single verb:

e.g. Eleven rand is all the money I have.
Fifty litres of petrol is what I asked for.

Collective nouns are followed by singular verbs unless the meaning

indicates the verb should be plural:
e.g. The crowd was so large it could not be accommodated.
The congregation were sked to take their seats.

ERROR CORRECTION

1. When one hears such rumours you are apt to become alarmed.

2. Young Smith, who we had supposed was useless, proved an ally.

3. The main responsibility rests upon you and I.

4. Climbing up the hill, the trees looked quite small.

5. Wanted: a chair for an old man with a sliding door.

6. Girl wanted: to be half in shop and half in office.

7. While expecting the map she split ink on it.

8. Victoria was our longest queen on the throne.

9. Mr and Mrs Smith died shortly after each other.

10. We identified the prisoner as the man who fired the shots from the warts on his nose.

11. Standards of mortality are sadly declining.

12. I have sought to tell the truth and avoid lying, without much success.

13. She said that it was time to put her foot down with a firm hand.

14. When a person is tired they should relax for a while.

15. Sustained by a good meal, the journey seemed less formidable.

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16. The two brothers helped one another.

17. Neither a man nor a woman over the age of sixty years old were left in the village.

18. Both the major powers were criticised for not combining to flatly forbid armed intervention.

19. De Beers will soon have a complete monopoly of diamond mining.

20. For who do you want to book for.

21. Each of the men mounted their bikes and went their separate ways.