Electronic configuration notes

The principal quantum number is a positive integer which varies from 1 to ∞.

The principal quantum number indicates the energy level in an atom where electrons can be located:
the higher the n value, the higher the energy level. An electron in energy level n=1 has lowest energy
in an atom. The principal quantum number, n, has been traditionally given names by the letters:
K(n=1), L(n=2), M(n=3), N(n=4), O(n=5), P(n=6).

In the Bohr’s atomic model, K, L, M, ... were used to represent different orbits or shells of electrons.
Later on, the term shell sometimes is used to describe a group of orbitals with the same principal
quantum number. The term subshell describes a group of orbitals with the same principal and second
quantum number. The maximum number of orbitals and electrons that can be found in an energy
level n are n2and 2n2, respectively (Table 2.1). The maximum number of sub shells in an energy level
n equals n.

Table 2.1 Relation between the principal quantum number, the number of orbitals and the
maximum number of electrons.

2)The angular momentum quantum number (l)

The second quantum number is the angular quantum number represented by the letter, l: it is an
integer which can take any value from zero or higher but less than n-1, i.e. equal to: 0,1, 2, 3,....up to
n-1. For example if n= 1, l is equal to 0, if n= 2, l can be 0, 1. It is also called secondary or azimuthal
quantum number. It indicates the shape of the orbital and is sometimes called the orbital shape
quantum number. By tradition, those different shapes of orbitals have been given names or letter
symbols: l = 0 = s, l =1 = p, l = 2 = d, l=3 = f

3) Magnetic quantum number (ml)

The magnetic quantum number describes the orientation of the orbital. It is an integer that varies
from -l to +l. For example if: l = 0, ml can only be 0; if l = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1; if l=2, ml = -2, -1, 0, 1, 2. As
you can see for each value of l there are (2l+ 1) values of ml corresponding to (2l + 1) orientations
under the influence of magnetic field. The s orbital where l is zero and ml has no orientation; it has
the shape of a sphere as shown in

Table 2.2: Relationship between the n, l and ml

Different sub-levels belonging to the same principal quantum number have different energies as
follows: s < p < d < f
4) The spin quantum number (S)

The fourth quantum number is the spin quantum number, represented by the symbol S (or ms in
some books). The electron behaves as a spinning magnet.The spin quantum number is the property
of the electron, not the orbital.This number describes the spinning direction of the electron in a
magnetic field. The direction could be either clockwise or counterclockwise. The electron behaves as
if it were spinning about its axis, thereby generating a magnetic field whose direction depends on the
direction of the spin. The two directions for the magnetic field correspond to the two possible values
for the spin quantum number, S (ms). Only two values are possible: s = +1/2 and -1/2 as shown in the
Figure 2.7 below.
ms = +1/2 and ms = -1/2 are commonly represented by ↑ and ↓ respectively.In conclusion an
electron in any given atom is decribed by 4 quantum numbers: (i) three quantum numbers which
describe the orbital where the electron is located: n, l and ml and (ii) one quantum number
describing the spin of the electron, S or ms.

2.5 Electronic configuration of atoms and ions

Activity 2.5

1. Write the electronic structure of the following chemical speciesK (Z=19), Ne (Z=10), Al3+ (Z=13), Cl
(Z=17), O2- (Z=16)

2. Using information in question 1,

a. Determine the group and period of K and Cl.

b.Which species have a stable electronic configuration? Explain.

The electron configuration is the distribution of electrons of an atom in its atomic orbitals. The
electronic configuration of an atom is governed by three main rules.

1) Aufbau Principle

The Aufbau principle explains how to build the electronic configuration of an atom.The Aufbau
principle states that atomic orbitals of lower energy must be filled before the higher energy orbitals.
The Aufbau principle is referred to as the “building-up” principle.

According to that principle, if an atom has only one electron, this electron will occupy the lowest
principal quantum energy level, n=1, and the lowest energy orbital in that principal quantum energy,
i.e. l = 0 = s. This is represented as: 1s1, meaning one electron in s orbital of the 1st energy level. If
the atom has 2 electrons, the second electron will be filled in the same s orbital to give the structure
1s2.
Note the way of notation: the first number indicates the principal energy level or principal quantum
number, followed by the letter indicating the orbital, followed by the number of electrons present in
the orbital, as super-script.

2) Pauli Exclusion Principle

What happens if we have 3 electrons in an atom? Can we squeeze them in 1s orbital?

There is a principle called Pauli Exclusion Principle states: in an atom, two electrons cannot have the
four quantum numbers n, l, ml, and S(ms) identical. This explains why the two electrons in the same
orbital must have their spin opposite:

The Pauli exclusion principle doesn’t allow us to put a 3rd electron in the same orbital, since if we put
3 electrons in the same orbital, 2 electrons will have 4 identical quantum numbers and this is not
allowed

In other words, the Pauli Exclusion Principle is telling us that you cannot put more than 2 electrons in
an orbital. i.e. the maximum number of electrons in an orbital is 2.

Hence, the 3rd electron must go in energy level n = 2, since energy level n=1 if full; it has only one
orbital s. Then for that atom with 3 electrons, the electronic structure is: 1s22s1

3) Hund’s rule

Atom with 4 electrons: 1s22s2

Atom with 5 electrons: 1s22s22p1

What about an atom with 6 electrons? Are we putting the 6th electron in the same orbital as the 5th
electrons? Remember that there are 3 p orbitals pxpypz of the same energy!

The Hund’s rule answers to that question.

It states that orbitals of equal energy are each occupied by one electron before electrons begin to
pair up into the same orbital. By convention, all the unpaired electrons are given the same
orientation spin. A slight preference for keeping electrons in separate orbitals helps to minimize the
natural repulsive forces that exist between two electrons.

Therefore, atom with 6 electrons: 1s22s22px1py1pz0

When building the electronic configuration of elements, you must be guided by the principles and
rules seen above and: writing the principal quantum number in Arabic number, followed by the
orbitals immediately followed by the number of electrons in the orbital as superscript.

An atom X: 1s2: has only two electrons in s orbital at the 1st energy level

An atom Y: 1s22s22p3: has electrons in 2 levels of energy: level n=1, and level n= 2. In level 1, it has 2
electrons in s orbital. In level 2, it has 2 electrons in s orbital and 3 electrons in p orbitals.
Figure 2.8 is a useful and simple aid for keeping track of the order in which electrons are first filled for
each atomic orbital. The different orbitals are filled in the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d,
5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p.Notice that as energy levels increase starting from n=3, 4s orbital is
filled before 3d, 5s before 4d, etc... as shown in the diagram below. But when ionized, 4s electrons
are ionized before 3d, and 5s before 4d.

Checkup 2.5 (a)

1. Build the electronic configuration of the following atoms: 1H, 3Li, 5B, 11Na, 18Ar,19K, 21Sc, 24Cr,
26Fe, 29Cu

2. Write the electronic configuration for each of the following pairs of ions. State the more stable ion
in gaseous state and explain your choice.

a. cu+ and cu2+

b.Fe2+ and Fe3+

Expanded notation

Expanded notation is another method of writing the s, p, d and f notation. The method uses the same
concept as s, p, d and f notation except that each individual orbital of a sub-level having many orbitals
is represented with a subscript letter indicating the orientation of the orbital. This applies for p, d,
and f orbitals. Considering that p-orbital has three componentsxp,ypand pz, the expanded electronic
configuration of some elements is given hereafter.

Checkup 2.5 (b)

Write the expanded electronic configuration for each of the following atom/ions. S(z=16), P3-(z=15),
Mg2+(z=12)

Orbital box representation

An orbital box representation consists of a box for each orbital in a given energy level, grouped by
sublevel, with an arrow indicating an electron and its spin.

Note that two electrons in the same orbital have necessarily opposite spins as indicated in the
examples below.

The table 2.4 shows the electronic configuration of some elements using orbital box representation
and applying Hund’s rule.
Table 2.4: Electronic configuration using orbital box representation

Checkup 2.5(c)

Using boxes to represent orbitals, draw the electronic configuration ofN3- (z=7), Ti4+(z=22), Mg2+
(z=12), Ar(z=18)Identify the isoelectronic species that are present.

Noble Gas Notation

All noble gases have completely filled subshells and can be used as a shorthand way of writing
electron configurations for subsequent atoms.When using this method, the following steps are
respected.

a. Identify the noble gas whose electronic configuration is included in that of the concerned element.

b.Write the chemical symbol of the identified noble gas within square brackets. We call this the noble
gas core.
c. Add electrons beyond the noble gas core. Note that electrons that are add-ed to the electronic
level of the highest principal quantum number (the outermost level or valence shell) are
called valence electrons.

Example: Given the electronic configurations of the noble gases Ne and Ar, one can write the
electronic configuration of some elements in noble gas notation of some elements as:

Checking up 2.5 (d)

Using the noble gas notation, write the electronic configuration of the following atoms/ions.

a. Ge (Z=32)

b. S (Z=16)

c. Co2+ (Z=27)

d. Br- (Z=35)

e. Sr (Z=38)

2.6. Relationship between ionization energy, energy levels and factors influencing ionization energy

Activity 2.6

Write the electronic configuration of the following elements/ions, use s, p, d, ...)

Sodium, magnesium, magnesium ion (Mg2+), aluminium, aluminium ion (Al3+), oxygen ion (O2-)

Identify the common feature of ions in (1) and why do they have such feature

Suggest what happened to aluminium atom when it changed to aluminium ion (Al3+)

Identify the group and the period of aluminium, sodium and oxygen atom

2.6.1. Concept of Ionization energy

The ionization energy is a measure of the energy needed for an atom, in gaseous state, to lose an
electron and become positive ion.

The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one electron from an atom in its gaseous
state. The example below shows how to represent the successive ionization energies of an atom M.
Second ionisation energy and nth ionisation energy: Two or more electrons can be removed and we
have successive ionization energies.

The ionization energy is usually expressed in kiloJoules per mole (kJ.mol-1). This energy is required to
overcome the attractive force between the nucleus and the electron and then remove the electron.
Theoretically there are as many successive ionisation energies as there are electrons in the original
atom. In figure 2.9, someone can make an interpretation of successive ionization energies of an atom

2.6.2. Interpretation of a graph of successive ionization energies of an atom

The graph shows that the energy to remove electron increases as more electrons are successively
removed.

a) The energy required to remove the first electron is relatively low. This corresponds to the loss of
one 3s electron.

b) To remove the second electron needs greater energy because this electron is closer to the nucleus
in a 2p orbital. There is a steady increase in energy required as elec-trons are removed from 2p and
then 2s-orbitals.

c) The removal of the tenth and eleventh electrons requires much greater amounts of energy,
because these electrons are closer to the nucleus in 1s orbital.
2.6.3. Factors influencing the extent of ionization energy

The ionization energy is a physical property of elements that can be influenced by some factors:

1) Size of atom

The atomic size is the distance between the nucleus and valence shell. As the number of energy levels
(shells) increases, the force of attraction between nucleus and valence electron decreases. Therefore,
the valence electrons are loosely held to the nucleus and lower energy is required to remove them,
i.e. ionization energy decreases with increase in atomic size and vice versa.This is what happens when
you go down a Group.

2) Nuclear charge

The nuclear charge is the total charge of all the protons in the nucleus. As the nuclear charge
increases, the force of attraction between nucleus and valence electrons on the same valence energy
level increases and hence makes it difficult to remove an electron from the valence shell. The higher
the nuclear charge, the higher the ionization energy. This is what happens when you cross a period
from left to right.

3) Screening effect or Shielding effect

The Screening effect or Shielding effect is due to the presence of inner electrons which have a
screening or shielding effect against the attraction of the nucleus towards the outermost electrons.
The electrons present in inner shells between the nucleus and the valence shell reduce the attraction
between nucleus and the outermost electrons. This shielding effect increases with the increasing
number of inner electrons. A strong Shielding effect makes it easier to remove an external electron
and hence lowers the ionisation energy.

2.6.4. Importance of ionization energy in the determination of the chemistry of an element

Ionization energy provides a basis to understand the chemistry of an element. The following
information is provided.

Determination of metallic or non- metallic character.

The I.E informs us how the atom will behave chemically: a low I.E indicates that the element behaves
as metal whereas a high I.E indicates that the element behaves as non-metal.

The first ionization energies of metals are all nearly below 800kJ mol-1 while those of non- metals are
all generally above 800 kJ mol-1.

Down the group ionization energies decrease so that the elements became more metallic. In groups
14 and 15 there is change from non metallic to metallic character. Across a period from left to right
1st I.E. increases. The elements become less metallic to non- metallic.

Example: The first three ionization energies for elements A, B, C, and D are given in the table below
This table shows that for a given element: 1st IE < 2nd IE < 3rd IE.

From the 1st I.E. of the elements it can be predicted that elements B and C have typical metallic
properties since their 1st ionization energies are low.

D is expected to be non-metal because of its high 1st IE.

Checking up 2.6

1. Given elements: Cl, Ca, and Na and the following 1st IE: 456, 578.8 and 1251 KJ/mol.
Respectively.Match those 1st IE with the three element and justify.

2. Given elements: bromine and iodine and 1st IE: 1008 and 1140 KJ/mol. Which 1st IE correspond to
which element? Explain.

3. Explain why 2nd IE is always greater than the 1st IE?

2.7. End unit assessment

1. Which of the following is the correct representation of the ground-state electron configuration of
molybdenum? Explain what is wrong with each of the others.
2. Which of the following electron configurations are correct and which ones are wrong? Explain.

3. Photosynthesis uses 660 nm light to convert CO2 and H2O into glucose and O2. Calculate the
frequency of this light.

4. Which of the following orbital designations are incorrect: 1s, 1p, 7d, 9s, 3f, 4f, 2d?

5. The data encoded on CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs is read by lasers. What is the wavelength in
nanometers and the energy in joules of the following lasers?
6. Concerning the concept of energy levels and orbitals,

a. How many subshells are found in 3=n?

b. What are the names of the orbitals in 3=n?

c. How many orbitals have the values 4=nand3=l?

d. How many orbitals have the values 23==,lnand2−=lm?(e) What is the total number of orbitals in
the level4=n?

7. A hypothetical electromagnetic wave is pictured here. What is the wavelength of this radiation?

8. Consider the following waves representing electromagnetic radiation:

a. Which wave has the longer wavelength?

b. Calculate the wavelengths of the two radiations

c. Which wave has the higher frequency and larger photon energy?

d. Calculate these values.

9. Order the orbitals for a multielectron atom in each of the following lists according to increasing
energy:a. p5 ,d5b. s4, p3c. s6,d4
10. According to the Aufbau principle, which orbital is filled immediately after each of the following in
a multielectron atom?

a. 4s

b. 3d

c. 5f

d. 5p

11. According to the Aufbau principle, which orbital is filled immediately be-fore each of the
following?

a. 3p

b. 4p

c. 4f

d. 5d

12. Four possible electron configurations for a nitrogen atom are shown be-low, but only one
represents the correct configuration for a nitrogen atom in its ground state. Which one is the correct
electron configuration? Which configurations violate the Pauli Exclusion Principle? Which
configurations violate Hund’s rule?

13. Explain the variation in the ionization energies of carbon, as displayed in this graph.
14. The first seven ionization energies of an element W are shown below

What factors determine the magnitude of the first ionization energy

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Absorption and emission spectra and associated energy

1. Understanding c = fλ

2. Understanding E = hf

3. The relationship between E, f, and h

4. The relationship between c, f, and λ

5. Energy transitions and spectra

6. Energy levels

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Orbitals, quantum Numbers, & the electronic configuration of atoms and ions

7. Aufbau diagrams

8. Electron structure

9. Electron configuration: Ions

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