Number Systems 1.

77

Example EBCDIC Table (Partial)

Decimal Binary Character Description

64 01000000 @ At symbol
66 01000010 A Uppercase A
97 01100001 Lowercase a
129 10000001 C Lowercase c
240 11110000 0 Digit 0
241 11110001 1 Digit 1
169 10101001 Cent symbol

Example EBCDIC
Consider the word "IBM":
" | =EBCDIC 201 (11001001 in binary)
" B= EBCDIC 194 (11000010 in binary)
" M= EBCDIC 196 (11000100 in binary)
When encoded in EBCDIC, the word "IBM" is stored as the binary sequence:
" 11001001 1100001011000100

Applications of EBCDIC
1. EBCDIC is used in IBM mainframe computers for data encoding.
2. It isused in legacy systems for compatibility, especially in finance and government sectors.
3. EBCDIC is used in data storage for mainframe compatibility.
4. It isused in enterprise systems that rely on IBM mainframes.
5. EBCDIC is used for file transfers between mainframe systems to ensure compatibility.

3Advantages of EBCDIC
1. Ensures compatibility with lBM mainframes and legacy systems.
2. Efficient for older hardware with established encoding standards.
3. Maintains data consistency for long-term stored data.
Disadvantages of EBCDIC
L. Limited usage outside IBM mainframes, reducing interoperability.
L. More complex than ASCII, making conversions difficult.
3. Outdated for modern applications compared to ASCII and Unicode.
1.78 Computer Architecture

Differences Between ASCIl and EBCDIC

Feature ASCII EBCDIC

7-bit encoding (with extended versions 8-bit encoding

Bit Length
using 8 bits)
Number of Characters 128 characters (standard), 256 in extended 256 characters
ASCII

Character Arrangement Sequential and logical order for letters and Segmented and
numbers arrangement
non-sequential
Primary Use Widely used in modern computing systems, Primarily used in TBM mainframes
text files, and the internet and legacy systems
Developed by the "American National
Development Standards Institute (ANSI)" in 1963 Developed by "IBM" in the 1960s

Control Characters Includes 33 control characters, such as Includes control characters, but with
NULL, ESC, and DEL different placements

Compatibility Universally supported by modern systems Mostly compatible with older IBM
and applications systems and mainframes
Ease of Use
Easier to understand and work with due to More complex due to non-sequential
its logical order character arrangement
Applications Commonly used in web pages, email, Mostly used in legacy systems,
programming, and data transmission banking, and government systems
Transition to Unicode ASCII is a subset of Unicode, allowing easy
transition to Unicode Not directly compatible with Unicode
1.9.8.3 Unicode
Unicode is a universal character encoding standard designed to represent text from any language of
writing system, including modern and ancient languages, symbols, emojis, and special characters
It was developed to overcome the limitations of earlier character encoding
systems like ASCIl and
EBCDIC, which were restricted in the number of characters they could represent. Unicode aims to
provide a unique code point (a number) for every character, regardless of the platform, program, o
language.
Key Features of Unicode:
1, Universal Character Set: Unicode can represent all
characters used in any written languag
as well as symbols, punctuation, and control characters. This includes
characters from Lat
Greek, Cyrillic, Arabic, Chinese, Japanese,and more.
2. Multiple Encoding Forms: Unicode can be implemented in different
UTF-8, UTF-16, and UTF-32 to accommodate different storage and
encoding formats, suche
transmission requiremen
3. Scalability : Unicode allows for more than 1.1 million code points (from 0 to
10FFFF
hexadecimal), though only around 144,000 are currently assigned.
4. Backward Compatibility with ASCII :Unicode's most common
encoding, UTE-8 is compati
with ASCII, meaning that the first 128 Unicode characters match ASCIL characters, allowi3
easy integration with systems that still use ASCI.
 Number Systems (1.79)
Unicode Encoding Forms :

1. UTF-8 (8-bit Unicode Transformation Format) :

" Avariable-length encoding that uses 1 to 4 bytes to represent characters.
Characters in the ASCIl range (0-127) are stored as a single byte, making it efficient for
text primarily in English.
. Non-ASCII characters use 2, 3, or 4 bytes.
" UTF-8 is the most commonly used Unicode encoding on the web.
2. UTF-16 (16-bit Unicode Transformation Format):
"Avariable-length encoding that uses 2 or 4 bytes for each character.
Common characters are encoded using 2 bytes, while less common characters use 4
bytes.
" It is widely used in operatingsystems like Windows.
3. UTF-32 (32-bit Unicode Transformation Format):
" Afixed-length encoding where each character is represented by 4 bytes (32 bits).
While simple, it is less efficient in terms of memory usage compared to UTF-8 and UTF
16, making it less commonly used.
Unicode Code Points:
Unicode assigns a unique code point toevery character, represented in hexadecimal. For example:
" The letter 'A' has a code point of U+0041.
" The letter 'a' has a code point ofU+0061.
Greek Capital Letter Omega (2)has a code point of U+03A9
Example Unicode

The word "Hello" can be represented in Unicode using the following code points for each letter:
" H:U+0048 " e :U+0065
"|:U+006C " |:U+006C
"o:U+006F
So, "Hello" in Unicode is: U+0048 U+0065 U+006CU+006C U+006F

Applications of Unicode
L. Unicode (especially UTF-8) is the standard encoding for web development. It ensures correct text
display in any language.
2. Modern operating systems like Windows, mac0S, and Linux use Unicode for text management and
display.
D. Programming languages such as Python, Java, and JavaScript support Unicode for handling text in
different languages.
t Unicode is widely used in databases for storing multilingual text.
Unicode allowsapplications to support multiple languages and writing systems seamlessly.
1.80 Computer Architecture

Advantages of Unicode
1. Unicode represents characters from any language or script. This makes it a global standard.
2. It encodes characters from many scripts. This enables multilingual computing
3. UTF-8 maintains backward compatibility with ASCII.
. Unicode ensures consistent character representation across platforms and deVices.
5. It supports emojis, mathematical symbols, and other special characters. This makes it suitable for
modern commnunication.

Disadvantages of Unicode
1. Encoding forms like UTF-8 and UTF-16 are variable-length. Different characters may require different
amounts of storage. This can complicate processing and indexing.
2. UTF-8 is efficient for ASCIIcharacters. However, non-Latin scripts like Chinese or Arabic may require
more storage.

Difference Between ASCII and Unicode

Feature ASCII Unicode

7-bit (128 characters), 8-bit extended Variable-length (UTF-8: 1-4 bytes, UTF-16:2
Bit Length
version (256 characters) or 4 bytes, UTF-32: 4 bytes)
Number of
128 (standard), 256 in extended ASCII Over 1.1 million code points
Characters

Character Set Primarily English alphabet,

digits, Supports characters from all languages,
punctuation,and control characters symbols, emojis, and more
Languages Limited to English and some basic symbols Supports all major languages and writing
Supported systems globally
Encoding Fixed-length encoding (7 or 8 bits per Variable-length encoding (UTF-8, UTF-16.
UTF-32) to suit storage and transmission
Flexibility character)
needs
Backward ASCIIis a subset of Unicode (in UTF-8, the Unicode is backward compatible with ASCII
Compatibility first 128 characters match ASCII) in UTF-8 format

Primarily used for English text, Used globally for modern applicationts
Use Case
programming, and legacy systems including web pages, documents, databases.
and programming.

Memory Minimal memory usage (1 byte per Higher memory usage for non-ASCI

Usage character) characters, but optimized with variable

length encodings like UTF-8
Text files, email headers, legacy data Web, databases,
Applications formats
programming language
internationalized software, emojis
 2.2 Computer Architecture

2.1 Introduction

AComputer is an electronic or digital device which accepts data, processes it, and outputs th.
appropriate results. The basic structure of the computer system includes devices like Input
(mouse, keyboard, joystick, microphone, camera, etc.), CPU (Central Processing Unit) and Outnu
Device,
Devices (Monitors and printers, etc.).
A computer is made up of electronic circuits that work with electrical signals to pertorm operations
These circuits consist of small electronic components that interact to procesS the data received ax
input and produce the necessary output. The computer converts data into electrical signals that
travel through these circuits, allowing it to function efficiently.
We provide data to the computer in a human-readable form, such as typing text on a keyboard
clicking with a mouse, or speaking into a microphone. The computer cannot directly understand
this human-readable input. Therefore,it converts the data into electrical signals, which are the only
form it can process. Once converted, these electrical signals travel through the computer's internal
Circuits, moving from one component to another. The central processing unit (CPO) takes charge of
processing the data, performing calculations, logical comparisons, or other operations based on the
instructions provided by the software. After processing, the computer converts the signals back into
a form that we can understand, such as text on a monitor, printed
documents, or audio from speakers.
This conversion back into a human-readable form allows us to see the final
output or result of the
computer's operations.
There are two basictypes of electrical signals, namely, analog and digital.
1. Analog Signals :
" Analog signals are continuous and can take on any
value within a given range. They are
smooth and change gradually over time.
" Think of a analog thermometer that measures
temperature. The temperature can be
25.5°C, 25.6°C, or 25.7°C. There are no jumps between these values - the temperature
can be any value in between.
Examples Analog Devices
1. Analog Thermometer: Uses mercury or alcohol to
show temperature with a continuously
moving scale.
2. Analog Clock: Displays time with continuously moving
hands.
3. Radio : Tunes into continuous signals to
broadcast audio.
4. Speedometer (in older cars) : Displays speed with a
continuously moving needle.
2. Digital Signals:
Digital signals are discrete, meaning they change in steps and can only take on
specil
values (like 0 and 1).
" Think of a light switch that can only be either on or off.
There is no in-between state.
" In adigital device (such as a modern computer), everything is
processed in the fori
binary data, which consists of two values: 0 (off) and 1 (on). These discrete signals
mas
it easier for computers to reliably store, process, and transmit
information.
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.3

Examples Digital Devices

1. Digital Watch: Displays time in discrete, digital numbers.
2. Smartphone : Operates using digital signals and binary data.
3. Laptop/Digital Computer :Processes and stores data indigital form.
4. Digital Calculator: Performs mathematical computations using binary operations.
Modern computers are primarily digital devices, meaning they operate with binary values (0 and
1to process information and perform tasks. Analog signals can be converted to digital signals for
processing in digital systems.
2.2 Digital Computers
,A digital computer isa system that performs various computational tasks using discrete values. In
digital systems, all information is processed in the form of 1's and 0's (binary values). These values
are used to represent numbers, letters, and other symbols. The concept of digit in digital computers
comes from this discrete nature of processing.
The first electronic digital computers, developed in the late 1940s, were primarily used for performing
numerical computations. Over time, digital computers became more versatile, capable of processing
not only numbers but also other forms of data, like text and images.
Definition: Digital Computer

Adigital computer is an electronic device that processes information using binary digits (0 and 1) to perform
a variety of tasks, such as calculations, data processing, and decision-making. Adigital computer works with
discrete values, typically represented by two states-on (1) and off (0) in the form of electrical signals.
A
digital computer performs tasks by:
1. Accepting input (data) from devices like keyboards, mice, or sensors.
2. Processing this data through its central processing unit (CPU) using logical and arithmetic
operations.
3. Storingintermediate results in memnory such as Random-Access Memory (RAM).
4. Outputting results in a form that humans can understand, like displaying text on a monitor or
printing resultson paper.
Digital computers function using a binary logicsystem (0s and 1s) because it is simpler, more reliable,
and less prone to errors than systems that use multiple states. In binary logic, each bit represents
adiscrete state, andgroups of bits (known as bytes) are used to represent more complex data like
numbers, letters, and symbols.
Why is it called a "Digital Computer"?
Ine term "digital" comes from the fact that information is handled in discrete,digit-like values, such
ds oinary digits (0 and 1), rather than continuous signals. This digital nature allows the computer
process, store, and transmit data accurately and efficiently for a wide range of applications from
onpie calculations to complex simulations and communication tasks.
 2.4 Computer Architecture

Software
2.2.1
unctionalEntities of aComputer System: Hardware and
Acomputer system is composed of two main functional entities: hardware and software.
Terers tothe physical components of the computer, such as input and output devices, Storage, an.Hardware
the central processing unit (CPU), which perform the actual computing tasks. On the other
hand
software consists of the programs and instructions that guide the hardware in executing specif
tasks, Software is essential for operating the computer, processing data, and interacing with user:
Together, hardware and software work in harmony to enable the computer to perform a wide
of functions, from basic data processing to complex operations.
range
1. Hardware

The hardware of a computer includes all the electronic components and electromechanical devicet
that make up the physical parts of the system. Hardware means physical parts/ intangible parts of;
computer that we can touch, unlike software. Hardware is further categorized into four main types:
" Input Devices : Devices that allow users to enter data into the computer.
"Output Devices : Devices that display or output the results of the computer's processes.
" Storage Devices: Components that store data permanently or temporarily.
" Central Processing Unit (CPU): The brain of the computer, which processes data and
performs calculations.
Examples: Hard drives, monitors, keyboards, CPUs, Scanners, printers, mouse, etc.
2. Software

Software refers to the set of instructions, data, or programs that tell the computer how to perform
specifictasks,)It is the intangible part of a computer system. Software isessential for the computer to
function as it controls hardware operations and enables the execution of various tasks. Asequence of
instructions is known as a program.
Examples : Microsoft Windows, Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Google Chrome, Photoshop,and
MySQL.
Types of Software :
1. System Software : System software serves as the bridge between the
computer hardware
and the application software. It includes programs that manage the basic
operations of the
computer such as the operating system. Without system software, the computer cannot
function. It is typically designed for general-purpose use.
Examples : Operating systems like Windows, compilers, and assemblers.
2. Application Software : Application software is developed to perform specific tasks based on
the user's requirements. It acts as an interface between the user and system software, allowing
users to accomplish tasks such as word processing, web browsing, and data analysis. Unlike
system software, application software does not control the basic operations of the computer
instead, it serves as a tool for users to perform particular tasks. This software is usuall
developed with the help of programming languages such as C, C++, Java, Python etc.
Examples: Microsoft Word, Excel, Google Chrome, Firefox, and other user-specific applications
 Digital Logic Circuits (2.5)

IUnderstanding System Software and Application Software

Acomputerrsystemis made up of two primary components: hardware and system software.. Hardware includes
L nhysical parts of the computer, while system software consists of the programs that help the
hardware
function efficientBy.
Svstem Software :The system software is a collection of programs designed tomanage the
computer's
resources and make better use of the hardware. The most important part of system software is the
operating system, which acts as an intermediary between the hardware and the user. It manages tasks
like memory allocation,file management, and controlling input/output operations.
" Application Software: The application software is written by users to solve specific problems. For
example, a high-level language program (like Python or Java) created by a user to process data is an
application program. However, the compiler that translates this high-level language into machine
language (which the computer understands) is considered system software.
When someone buys a computer, they need not only the hardware but also the system software to operate
the machine effectively. System software plays a crucial role in ensuring that the user's needs, such as running
aplications and managing resources, are efficiently handled by the hardware. It bridges the gap between
what the user wants and what the hardware is capable of doing. Without system software, a computer cannot
function properly.
2.2.2 Hardware of a Computer (or) Block Diagramn of
of aa IDigital Computer
Acomputer system is made up of several functional units that work together to perform various
tasks. These units handle the input, processing, storage, and output of data. The major functional
units are:

1. Input Unit
2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Arithmetic &Logical Unit (ALU)
" ControlUnit (CU)
3. Memory Unit
4. Output Unit
tach tunctional unit in acomputer system plays akey role in ensuring that the computer can accept
pat, process it, and provide the appropriate output. The input unit collects data, the CPU(with its
0 and controlunit) processes it, the memory unit stores the data, and the output unit delivers the
esits to the user:.These interconnected units form the core of a computer's functionality.
1. Input Unit
(Ihe input unit is responsible for accepting data and instructions from the user and converting
Lnem into a form that the computer can process, typically into binary code. Input devices like
Keyboards, mice,and scanners act as a bridge between the user and the computer. When a key
S pressed on the keyboard, for example, the corresponding letter or digit is translated into
Olnary and sent to the memoryor processor for further actions.
Examples : Keyboards, mice, joysticks, trackballs, microphones, and scanners.
2.6 Computer Architecture

Storage Unit

Secondary
Storage
Data Output + Information
Input Unit
Primary Unit
Storage

Control
Unit (CU)

ArithmaticAnd
Logical Unit (ALU) Data Flow
Control Flow
Central Processing
Unit (CPU)

Figure 2.1: Block Diagram of a DigitalComputer

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU):
The CPU is the brain of the computer, where all the
It executes
computations and operations take place.)
instructions provided by the program and coordinates all the tasks within the
computer. The CPUconsists of two major components:
a. Arithmetic &Logical Unit (ALU):
The ALU performs all of the mathematical and
can handle basic arithmetic operations like logical operations in the computer. It
addition,
division, as well as logical operations like comparisonssubtraction,
(AND, OR,
multiplication, and
NOT). The ALU is a
critical component of the CPU, where most of the actualdata
b. Control Unit (CU):
processing occurs.
The Control Unit manages and controls the
activities of all the other units. It retrieves
instructions from memory, decodes them, and directs the other units to execute these
instructions. It coordinates the flow of data within the computer and ensures that
the correct operations are carried out in the
right order. The control unit acts as the
supervisor, directing the sequence of operations based on the program's
Thecontrol unit is also known as the nerve instructions.
center
all the activities and operations of the computer.
of a computer system since it contros

3. Memory Unit:
The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage
area in which
running, and that contains data needed by the running program.programs are kept which are
The memorv unit is where
the computer stores data and instructions. lt is divided into two main tyngc.
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.7

a. Primary Memory:Primary memory is alsoknown as main memory and volatile memory.

The data stored in it is lost when the computer is powered off. It provides fast,
temporary
storage that is used by the CPUto access running programs and actively used data. It
includes RAM (Random Access Memory), which is used for general-purpose storage of
programnsand data in use, and Cache Memory, which provides faster data access by storing
frequently used data and instructions close to the CPU. Primary memory is essential
for quick processing because it operates at high speed, ensuring smooth operation of
applications.
Examples: RAM, Cache memory.
b. Secondary Memory : Secondary memory is non-volatile, meaning that data remains
intact even when the computer is turned off. It is used to store large amounts of data
and programs for long-term use, providing permanent storage. This type of memory
has higher storage capacity but is slower compared to primary memory. Hard drives,
magnetic tapes, optical disks, and Solid-State Drives (SSD) are examples of secondary
memory. Secondary memory serves as the computer's main repository for operating
systems,applications, and user data. Though it is slower, it plays a critical role in data
preservation and retrieval.
Examples: Hard drives, SSDs, magnetic tapes, optical disks (like CDs and DVDs).
Note : Primary memory is directly accessible by the CPU, while secondary memory must first
be loaded into RAM before being accessed.
4. Output Unit:
The output unit is responsible for conveying the processed data back to the user in a readable
format. 0utput devices take the data that has been processed by the computer and display it
as text, graphics, or sound. For example, a monitor displays visual information, and a printer
provides a hard copy of the results.
Examples: Monitors, printers, and speakers.
2.2.3 Computer Types

Acomputer is afast electronic calculating machine that accepts digitized input data, processes it
according to aset of internally stored instructions (called programs), and outputs the resulting
information. The internal storage that holds both data and instructions is known as computer
memory. The different types of computers are
L. Personal Computers (PCs) : These are the most common type of computers found in homes,
schools, and offices. Apersonal computer typically consists of a processing unit, storage unit,
and various input/output devices.
Example : Desktop computers like DellInspiron or Apple iMac.
4. Notebook Computers : Also known as laptops, these are portable versions of personal
computers, designed for mobility without sacrificing performance. They are lightweight,
Compact, and can be powered by batteries.
Example : MacBook Air or HP Spectre.
 2.8 Computer Architecture

3. Workstations: These computers have higher processing power and high-resolution

output (1/0)capabilities compared to regular desktop PCs. They are mainly used for specialized input)
applications like engineering, animation, and graphic design, where high-performance
graphics and processing are essential.
Example: DellPrecision or HP Z-Series workstations.
4. Enterprise Systems : These computers are used by large businesses to process extensive
amounts of data. They provide much higher processing power and storage capacity than
workstations, making them ideal for handling business-critical applications like transaction
processing, databases, and large-scale network management.
Example : IBM Z-Series Mainframes or Oracle Enterprise Servers.
5. SuperComputers : Supercomputers arethe fastest and most powerful typeof computer. They
are used for complex tasks such as weather forecasting, scientific simulations, and engineering
work that require vast amounts of processing power and high-speed computations.
Example:IBM Sunmmit or Fugaku (used in scientific research and climate modeling).
2.2.4 Understanding Computer Organization, Design, and Architecture

When studying computer hardware, we often focus on three key areas: Computer Organization,
Computer Design, and Computer Architecture. These areas describe different aspects of how
computers are built and how they work.
1. Computer Organization : Computer Organization is about howthe hardware components
of a computer work together. It focuses on how parts like the CPU, memory, and input/output
devices are connected and interact to make the computer function/In simple words, Computer
Organization explains how different hardware parts work together.
Examples Computer Organization
Memory Hierarchy: The computer has different types of memory like RAM, cache, and hard
drives. Computer organization explains how the system uses faster memory (like cache) for
freguently accessed data, while slower memory (like hard drives) stores large amounts of data
for long-term use.
" Bus System : This is like the "highway" that transfers data between different parts of the
computer, such as the CPU and memory.
2. Computer Design :Computer Design focuses on how to actually build the hardware. It
involves deciding what parts should be used and how they should be connected. This is the
practical side of creating a computer. In simple word,Computer Design focuses on how to
physically build the hardware parts of a computer.
Examples Computer Design
" Motherboard: When designing amotherboard, engineers decide where to place the CPU, RAM
slots, and ports for external devices. They also choose the type of
processor and the amount o
memory the computer should have based on the intended use of the
computer (e.g.. for gaminy
office work, or scientific computing).
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.9

CPU: Another example is designing the CPU itself. For example, a designer might
choose to include multiple cores in the CPU to allow the computer to perform several
tasks at once (multitasking).
3. Computer Architecture
Computer Architecture is about how the computer works from the user's point of view. It
defines how the computer handles instructions and data, and what kind of commands the
computer can understand. In simple words, Computer Architecture defines how the computer
operates and interacts with the user.
Examples Computer Architecture
" Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): The instruction set architecture (1ISA) is aset ofcommands
the CPUunderstands. For example, RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architectures use
simple, fast commands, while CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) architectures use more
complex commands.
" Virtual Memory: This is a system where the computer can act as if it has more memory than
it actually does, by temporarily storing data on the hard drive and moving it to RAM when
needed.

2.3 Digital Logic Circuits

Digital Logic Circuits are the core of all modern electronic devices such as computers, smartphones,
digital watches and more. These circuits operate using binary data, which is represented by only two
possible states: 0 (off or low voltage) and 1 (on or high voltage). Digital logic circuits manipulate
these binary states to performa wide variety of tasks,from simple calculations to complex decision
making processes.
Definition: Digital Logic Circuits

Digital Logic Circuits are electronic circuits that process digital signals, which exist in two states: 0(off/
|low voltage) and 1 (on/high voltage). These circuits are designed to perform logical operations and are the
foundation of modern digital systems such as computers,calculators, and communication devices. Digital logic
|Circuits are made up of logic gates like AND, OR, and NOT, which are combined to create complex systems
capable of performing arithmetic, data storage, control tasks, and more.They form the core of all digital devices
by manipulating binary data.
2.3.1 Basic Components of Digital Logic Circuits
The basic components of Digital Logic Circuits are:
L. Logic Gates : Logic gates are the fundamental building blocks of digital circuits. Each gate
performs a basic logical function based on one or more binary inputs and produces a single
Output. The most common types of logic gates include:
AND Gate (Produces an output of 1if all its inputs are 1.Otherwise, the output is 0.
Example : In a digital alarm clock, an AND gate could be used to trigger an alarm when
both the time and the alarm setting match.
2.10
Computer Architecture

OR Gate Produces an output of 1 if at least one input is 1.

heat
Example : In a fire detection system, an OR gate could trigger an alarm ifsmoke or
sensors detect danger.
NOT Gate : Produces the opposite of its input. If the input is 1, the output is 0, and vice
versa.
from
Example : In a security system, a NOT gate might be used to reverse the signal
sensor that is triggered when a door is closed (output 1), turning off the signal (output 0)
when the door is opened.
" NAND, NOR, XOR,and XNOR Gates: These gates are variations of the basic gates
and are
used in specific situations.
Example : A XOR gate outputs 1 if only one of its inputs is 1, which is useful in error
checking circuits.
2. Combinational Circuits
Combinational circuits are formed by connecting multiple logic gates together. These circuits
perform more complex operations and generate outputs based solely on the current inputs,
without relying on past inputs.
Adder Circuit : Adds two binary numbers and produces a sum and a carry value. These
are essential in performing arithmetic operations inside a CPU.
Example:A full adder circuit adds multi-bit binary numbers, like those used in calculators
and computers.
Multiplexer (MUX) : Amultiplexer selects one of many input signals and forwards the
selected input to a single output line. It is commonly used in communication systems to
select a data channel.

Example : In avideo processor, a multiplexer might be used to choose between different

video inputs (like from a camera or DVDplayer) and display the selected one on a screen.
3. Sequential Circuits
Sequential circuits differ from combinational circuits because they have memory. The output
of a sequential circuit depends not only on the current inputs but also on past inputs. This is
achieved using devices called flip-flops, which store binary data.
" Flip-Flops : A flip-flop is a basic memory element that stores one bit of data. Flip-flops
are used to store state information in many devices, from simple counting circuits to
complex processors.
Example :D flip-flops are used in digital watches to keep track of time by counting the
number of clock pulses.
" Counters: Counters are circuits that count the number of pulses and store the
result in
binary form. They are often used in timers and event counters.
hours,
Example: In a digital clock, counters are used to count the seconds, minutes, and
converting the number of pulses from the clock signal into a readable time display.
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.11

2.3.2 Applications of Digital Logic Circuits

Applications of Digital Logic Circuits

1. Computers and Processors: Digital logic circuits are the backbone of computer processors. The CPU
contains millions oftinylogic gates that perform arithmetic and logic operations. Combinationalcircuits
perform tasks like adding numbers,while sequential circuits store results and control operations.
Example :The Intel Core i9 processor uses digital logic circuits to handle complex operations like
running multiple programs simultaneously and managing memory efficiently.
2. Digital Communication: Digital logiccircuitsare used in communication systems for signal processing,
error detection, and data transmission. These circuits ensure that data can be transmitted and received
accurately, even over long distances.
Example : In Wi-Fi routers, digital logic circuits encode and decode data, enabling wireless
communication between devices like smartphones and laptops.
3. Embedded Systems: Embedded systems are computers embedded within devices to perform specific
tasks. Digital logic circuits control the operations of these devices.
Example:Ina washing machine, digital logic circuits manage the timing, water level, and spin cycle to
automate the washing process.
4. Automotive Systems : Digital logic circuits are widely used in modern vehicles to control various
systems such as braking, engine management, and navigation. These circuits help process inputs from
sensors and make real-time decisions for better vehicle performance and safety.
Example:In Anti-lock Braking Systems (ABS), digital logic circuits monitor the wheel speed and adjust
braking force to prevent the wheels from locking up, improving vehicle control during emergency stops.
5. Consumer Electronics : Many consumer devices such as televisions, smartphones, and home
appliances rely on digital logiccircuits to function. These circuits control everything from basic power
management to complex features like touchscreens and voice recognition.
Example : In a smart TV, digital logic circuits manage video processing, network connections, and
user input, allowing users to stream content, browse the internet, and control the TV using remote
commands or voice recognition.

2.4 Logic Gates

Logic gates are the basic building blocks of digital electronics. They are electronic circuits that
perform logical operations on one or more binary inputs (0 and 1) and produce a single binary
output. Logicgates followthe rulesof Boolean algebra, which isused to handle logical expressions
and make decisions in digital circuits.
In simple terms, logicgates areused to create decision-making circuits that control the flow of data
within digitaldevices like computers, smartphones, and embedded systems. By combining logic gates,
complex circuits can be designed to perform a wide variety of tasks, such as arithmetic operations,
memory storage, and signal processing.
What are Logic Gates?

Logic gates take one or more binary iinputs (0 or 1) and produce a binary output based on the type of gate.
These gates are used to make logical decisions in circuits and are fundamental to the functioning of digital
devices. Each type of logic gate performs a specific logical function.
 > Computer Architecture
(2.12
NND Gate, NOR Gate, XOR C
gates: AND Gate, OR Gate. NOT Gate,
There are several basic types of logic
(Exclusive OR), and XNOR Gate (Exclusive NOR).
diodes, and resistors. LogiC gates process one
Logic Gates are circuits made up of transistors,
input value or voltage, the logic gate wil
more input signals in alogical fashion. Depending on the allow simplincation of circluis
either output a value of '1" for ON or a value of '0"for OFF. Logic Gates
operation.
Gates. Gates are simple, memory
The processing of binary information is done by logic circuits called
are the AND, OR, NOT
less processing elements. The five common logic gates used in wiring diagrams
an
NAND, NOR. Each gate is represented using a logic symbol. The output of a gate is represented by
table.
algebraic expression and the relationship of the binary variables are represented using truth
Meaning:Truth Table
Atruth table is a table that lists allpossible combinations of inputs and their corresponding outputs for a given
logic function. If a logic function has 'n' binary variables,the total number of possible input combinations is 2"
since each binary variable can have two possible values: 0 or 1.
The truth table provides aclear way to represent the relationship between the inputs and the resulting output
of the logic function. It is particularly useful in understanding how logic gates or boolean expressions behave
for every possible input scenario.
Example:If there are 2 binary variables (n = 2),the truth table would have 2 = 4 combinations of inputs
(00, 01, 10, 11) and the corresponding outputs for each combination. This systematic representation helps in
designing and analyzing digital circuits.
2.4.1 AND Gate

An AND gate is a fundamental logic gate that

outputs 1only when all its inputs are 1. If any Inputs Output
of the inputs is 0,the output will be 0. This gate A
performs a logical multiplication where the result C=A.B
istrue only when all conditions (inputs) are true. B

" The output is 1 only if all inputs are 1.

" The output is 0 if any input is 0. Logic Symbol of AND Gate
Logic Symbol Truth Table
Input 1 Input 2 Output
A B C=A.B
Inputs Output
A
-C=A.B 1
B

1 1 1
Logic Symbol of AND Gate
Truth Table
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.13

How Does The AND"Gate Work?

Inputs Output
Switch A Switch B
o000) AND gates are like tWo or more switches in
Lamp series. Althe switches have to be closed (ON' or
avalue of 1)in order to make the lamp(output
C) turn on. If all inputs are not "ON", the output
is "OFF".)

All input values to the AND gate must be a'1'in order to get an
output'1. Any other input combinations
will result in a zero' as the output as shown in the truth table above.
2.4.2 OR Gate
An OR gate is a basic logic gate that outputs 1 if at least one input is 1. If all
inputs are 0, then the
output willbe 0. This gate performs a logical addition where the result is true if any condition is true.
The output is 1 if any input is 1.
" The output is 0 only if all inputs are 0.
Logic Symbol Truth Table
Input 1 Input 2 Output
Logic Symbol A B C=A+ B
Inputs 0 0
A Output 1 1
-C = A+B 1
B
1 1 1

How Does The "OR" Gate Work?

Inputs
Switch A
Output An 'OR' gate is like two or more switches in parallel.
Only one switch needs to be closed ('ON' or a value
of '1)in order to make the lamp (output C) turn 'ON'
Switch B Lamp
with a value of'1

2.4.3 NOT Gate

ANOT gate, also known as an inverter, is a basic logic gate that produces the opposite of the input.
IT the input is 1, the output will be 0, and if the input is 0, the output will be 1. It operates on a single
Input and reverses its logic state.
The output is 1 if the input is 0.
The output is 0 if the input is 1.
 2.14 Computer Architecture

Logic Symbol Truth Table

Input Output

Input A C=A
Qutput
A C=A
1

2.4.4 NAND Gate

A NAND gate is the combination of both an ANDgate and aNOT gate. It operates the same as an AND
gate but the output will be the opposite. In other words,the output of a NAND gate is 1 unless both
inputs are 1,in which case the output is 0.
The NAND gate can be described as the opposite of an AND gate:
" Inan AND gate, the output is 1only when both inputs are 1.
" bIna NAND gate, the output isOwhen both inputs are 1, but it is 1for all other input combinations.
Additionally, the NOT gate can be placed at different points in acircuit, not just at the output. It can
also be used to invert the input signal, which can be useful for certain logic operations.
NAND gates are fundamental because they are universal gates--meaning we can construct any other
logic gate (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) using only NAND gates.
Logic Symbol Truth Table

Inputs Output Input 1 Input 2 Output

A A B C=AB
- C=(A.B)
B 0 0

0 1
Inputs Output 1.
A
-C= (A.B) 0

2.4.5 NOR Gate

ANOR gate is a combination of an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. It operates similarly to an OR gate,
but the output is the opposite of the OR gate's output. In other words, the output of a NOR gate is
only when both inputs are 0. For any other combination of inputs, the output willbe 0.
The NOR gate can be described as the inverse of an OR gate:
" In an OR gate, the output is 1 if at least one input is 1.
Ina NOR gate, the output is 0 if at least one input is 1, and 1 only when both inputs are 0.
The NOR gate is also a universal gate, meaning that any logic gate (AND, OR, NOT, etc.) can be
constructed using just NOR gates.
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.15

Logic Symbol Truth Table

Inputs Input Input 2 Output
A Output A B C=A+B
C= (A + B)'
B
0

Inputs
A 1
Output
B

2.4.6 XOR Gate

An XOR gate (Exclusive OR gate) is a logic gate that outputs 1 if the inputs are different. If both inputs
are the same, the output is 0. It performs a specific logic operation where the output is true (1) when
the number of true inputs is odd.
The key feature of the XOR gate is that it only outputs 1 if exactly one of the inputs is 1. If both inputs
are either0or 1, the output will be 0.
The output is1 if the inputs are different. The output is 0 if the inputs are the same.
Logic Symbol Truth Table

Inputs Output Input A Input B Output

A Y=AB
Y= A B
B = AB' + AB 0 1 1
1 1
1

2.4.7 XNOR Gate

AnXNOR gate (Exclusive NOR gate) is the inverse of an XOR gate. It outputs 1 if the inputs are the
same (both 0or both 1). If the inputs are different, the output is 0. It performs alogic operation where
the output is true when the number of true inputs is even.
The XNOR gate is often called the "equality gate" because it outputs 1when both inputs are equal.
" The output is 1 if the inputs are the same (both 0 or both 1).
" The output is 0 if the inputs are different.
ANOR gates are used in circuits that check for equality between two binary values. In some systems,
ANOR gates are used for detecting errors when comparing transmitted and received data.
Logic Symbol Truth Table

Input A Input B Output Y=A B

Inputs
A Output Y=(A B)'
1

= AB + AB' 0
1 1 1
(2.16 ’ Computer Architecture

Truth Table for AIlLogic Gates:

NAND NOR XNOR

B OR AND NOT A NOT B (NOT (AND) XOR
A
(NOT(OR)) (NOT(XOR)
1
0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 1 0 1 1 1

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 0 1

OR and NOR gates are complementary. The NOR gate is simply the inverse of the ok gate.
" AND and NAND gates are complementary. The NAND gate is the inverse of the AND gate.
XOR and XNOR gates handledifferences and sameness between inputs:
" XOR gives 1 if inputs are different.
" XNOR gives 1 if inputsare the same.
By using NOT gates on the output of AND, OR, or XOR gates,we obtain the NAND, NOR, and XNOR gates,
respectively. This is why they are called complementary gates-one is the inverted form of the other.

2.4.8 Universal Gates

Universal gates are logic gates that can be used to implement any other type of logic gate, including
AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR, and other complex digital circuits. The two most commonly known
universal gates are the NAND gate and the NOR gate. These gates are called "universal" because
they can perform allbasic logical operations necessary to design any digital circuit using just one
type of gate.
Meaning: Universal Gates

AUniversal Gate is atype of logic gate that can be used to implement any other logic gate or Boolean function.
The two main universal gates are the NAND gate and the NOR gate. These gates are called "universal" because
they can be combined in various ways to replicate the functions of all other basic logic gates, such as AND, OR,
and NOT, as well as complex digital circuits.
The significanceof universal gates lies in their flexibility and simplicity, as acomplex circuit can be
built using only one kind of gate (either NAND or NOR),which simplifies manufacturing and design.
2.4.8.1 Universal Property of NAND Gate
The NAND gate is called a universal gate because it can be used to implement any logic gate or Boolean
function. In other words, we can construct AND, OR, NOT, XOR, and any other logic gate using only
NANDgates. The NANDgate is a combination of an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. It outputs a0
only when all inputs are 1; otherwise,it outputs a 1.
NAND as NOT Gate

A
NAND gate can be turned into a NOT gate by connecting both of its inputs together.
" ANOT gate takes one input and gives the opposite (or inverted) output. If the input is 1, the
output will be 0, and if the input is 0, the output will be 1,
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.17

. ANAND gate normally takes two inputs. It checks if both inputs are 1, and if they are, the
output is 0. For all other input combinations, the output is 1.
Now, if we join the two inputs of a NAND gate together, the gate will behave like a NOT gate. This is
bacause it will be given the same value for both inputs (either 0or 1) and will give the opposite as the
output, justtlike a NOT gate.
Desired Gate NANDConstruction
A A

Example NAND as NOT Gate

. If the input is 0, the NAND gate willgive an output of 1 (the opposite).

. If the input is 1, the NAND gate willgive an output of 0 (again, the opposite).
So, by connecting the inputs of a NAND gate together, it becomes a simple NOT gate that flips the input to its
opposite.
NAND as AND Gate

ANAND gate can also be used to create an AND gate by combining two NAND gates.
"ANAND gate normally gives an output of 0when both inputs are 1, and gives an output of 1for
allother combinations. This is the opposite of an AND gate.
" To make the NAND gate behave like an AND gate, we just need to invert (flip) the output of
the NND gate. This can be done by using a second NAND gate as a NOT gate (as we discussed
earlier).
NOT
An AND gate is made by following a NAND gate with a NOT gate as shown below. This gives a
NAND, i.e. AND.
Desired Gate NAND Construction

A A
Q
B B
NAND as AND Gate
Example
the second NAND gate (acting as a NOT gate)
" Ifboth inputs are 1, the first NAND gate will output 0, and
output will be 1.
will flip this to 1.So, if both the inputs are 1, then final
and the second NND gate will flip it to 0, matching
" Ifeither input is 0, the first NAND gate will output 1,
the behavior of an AND gater
NAND as OR Gate
combining three NAND gates.
VAND gate can also be used to create an OR gate by
except when both inputs are 1,in which case it
ANAND gate gives 1 for all input combinations
0. This behavior is the opposite of an OR gate, which gives 0only when both inputsare 0.
gives
 2.18 Computer Architecture

To make a NAND gate behave like an OR gate, we first need to invert the inputs of the NANN
gate using twoadditional NANDgates (acting as NOT gates). Then, the third NAND gate wil
combine these inverted inputs to give the correct OR gate behavior.
Desired Gate NAND Construction

B
B
Example NAND as OR Gate

" If both inputs are 0: The first NAND gate (inverting input A) will output 1, and the second NAND gate
(inverting input B) willoutput 1. The third NAND gate, with inputs 1 and 1, will give an output of 0(just
like an 0R gate would).
" Ifeither input is 1 :IfA =1 and B= 0,the first NAND gate willoutput 0 (NOTA), and the second NAND
gate willoutput 1 (NOT B). The third NAND gate will now have inputs 0 and 1,giving an outputof 1
(again, behaving like an OR gate).
NAND as NOR Gate

A NND gate can also be used to create a NOR gate by combining four NAND gates.
ANAND gate gives 1 for all input combinations except when both inputs are 1, in which case it
gives 0. ANOR gate, on the other hand, gives 1 only when both inputs are 0, and gives 0 for all
other combinations.
To make a NAND gate behave like a NOR gate, we first need to create an OR gate using three
NAND gates, and then invert the output of this OR gate using one more NAND gate (acting as a
NOT gate).
Desired Gate NAND Construction

Example NAND as NOR Gate

" If both inputs are 0 : The first two NAND gates (inverting input A and B) will output 1 and1
respectively. The third NAND gate (which behaves like an OR gate) willgive Oas the output. The fourth
NANDgate (acting as a NOT gate) willinvert this 0 to 1, behaving like a NOR gate.
" If either inputis 1: IfA =1 and B=0,the first NAND gate will output 0 (NOT A), and the second NAND
gate will output 1 (NOT B).The third NAND gate will give an output of 1 (0R gate behavior), and the
fourth NAND gate will inyettthe 1 to 0,just like a NOR gate.

NAND as XOR Gate

An XOR gate can indeed be understood as an extension of an OR gate, with an additional condition
that checks for both inputs being 1. The key difference between an OR gate and an XOR gate is tha
the XOR gate outputs 0 when both inputs are 1, whereas an 0R gate outputs 1 when both inputs are .
 Digital Logic Circuits 2.19
To implement an XOR gate using NAND gates, we can think of it as combining the behavior of an
gateanda special check for when both inputs are 1. OR
vORGate as a Combination of OR and NAND: XOR = (A OR B) AND (A
NAND B)
Where:
.A OR B:This part ensures that the output is 1 when at least
one of the inputs is 1.
. A NANDB:This part ensures that the output becomes 0
when both inputs are 1,canceling out
the result from the OR condition.
How the XOR Gate is Constructed (Using NAND Gates):
1, First NAND Gate (A NAND B):The first step is to calculate N= A
NAND B. This gate produces
1unless both inputs A and B are 1.
2. Second NAND Gate (A NAND N) :This gate takes the input A and
the output N from the first
NAND gate. This step ensures that the gate outputs 1 when A=1and B=0.
3. Third NAND Gate (B NAND N) : Similarly, this gate takes Band N as
inputs. This ensures that
the output is 1 when B = 1 and A = 0.
4. Final NAND Gate (combining the outputs): The final step is touse a
fourth NAND gate to
combine the outputs from the second and third NAND gates. This ensures that when both A
and Bare 1, the final output willbe 0, completingthe XORbehavior.
Desired Gate NAND Construction

A
A
-Q
B
B

Example NAND as XOR Gate

Let's take A= 1 and B = 0to show how an XOR gate is built with NND gates:
1. First NAND Gate (A NAND B) :
Inputs: A=1, B=0
Output: 1(since 1 NAND 0 = 1)
2. Second NAND Gate (A NAND N) :
Inputs: A= 1, N= 1 (from the first NAND gate)
Output: 0(since 1 NAND 1 = 0)
3. Third NAND Gate (B NAND N) :
Inputs : B= 0, N= 1
Output: 1(since 0 NAND 1 = 1)
4. Fourth NAND Gate (Combining the Outputs) :
Inputs:0 and 1 (outputs of second and third NAND gates)
Output: 1 (since 0 NAND 1 = 1)
With A=1and B=0, the XOR gate (using NAND gates) outputs 1, as expected for XOR when the inputs are
different.
NAND as XNOR Gate
An ANOR gate is essentially an XOR gate followed by a NOT gate (or inversion). The purpose of an
ANOR gate is to check if the two inputs are equal. It outputs 1 when both inputs are the same (either
both 0or both 1) and outputs 0 when the inputs are different.
(2.20 Computer Architecture

To construct an XNOR gate using NAND gates, we follow asimilar approach as building an XOR oa
but with an additional inversion step at the end to flip the XOR result. The XNOR gate outputs 1 wh
the inputs are the same (either both 0 or both 1) and outputs Owhen the inputs are different.
" AnXOR gate outputs 1 when the inputs are different (A = 1, B= 0 or A=0, B= 1).
" An XNOR gate, on the other hand, flips the result of the XOR gate. So, it will output 1when the
inputs are the same (A =0, B=0 or A= 1, B= 1)and 0 when they are different.
Desired Gate NAND Construction
A
A

B
B

How the XNOR Gate is Constructed (Using NAND Gates):

" First NAND Gate computes A NAND B.
" Second and Third NAND Gates check for cases where A=1, B=0 or A= 0, B = 1.
" Fourth NAND Gate creates the XOR function.
" Fifth NAND Gate inverts the XOR result toproduce XNOR.
Example NAND as XNOR Gate
" For inputs A = 1and B = 1:The XOR gate would output 0 because the inputs are the same.
The XNOR gate will invert this result, giving an output of 1.
For inputs A = 1and B 0: The XOR gate would output 1 because the inputs are different.
The XNOR gate will invert this result, giving an output of 0.

2.4.8.2 Universal Property of NOR Gate

The NOR gate is also called a universal gate because, like the NAND gate, it can be used to implement
any logic gate or Boolean function. Thismeans that we can construct AND, OR, NOT, XOR, and other
logic gates using only NOR gates.
The NOR gate is a combination of an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. It outputs a 1 only when al
inputs are 0; otherwise, it outputs a 0. This inversion of the OR gate's output makes it powerful
enough to build other logic gates.
NOR as NOT Gate

ANOR gate can be turned into a NOT gate by connecting both of its inputs together.
" ANOT gate takes one input and gives the opposite (or inverted) output. If the input is 1, the
output willbe 0, and if the input is 0, the output will be 1.
" A
NOR gate normally takes two inputs. It checks if either input is 1, and ifso, the output is 0.I
both inputs are 0, the output is 1.
Now, if we join the two inputs of a NOR gate together, the gate will behave like a NOT gate. This i
because it will be given the same value for both inputs (either 0or 1) and will give the opposite as tte
output, just like a NOT gate.
Desired Gate NOR Construction

A A
 Digital Logic Circuits e 2.21

Example NOR as NOT Gate

. If the input is 0, the NOR gate will give an output of 1 (the opposite).
. Ifthe input is 1, the NOR gate will give an output of 0 (again, the opposite).

NOR as ANDGate

ANOR gate can also be used tocreate an AND gate by combining two NOR gates.
"ANOR gate normally gives an output of 1 when both inputs are 0, and gives an output of 0 for
allother combinations. This is the opposite of an OR gate.
. To make the NOR gate behave like an AND gate, we just need to invert (flip) the
inputs before
sending them into the NOR gate. This can be done by using two NOR gates as NOT gates (as
discussed earlier), and then feeding the outputs into a third NOR gate.
Desired Gate NOR Construction

Example NOR as AND Gate

" If both inputs are 1:

- The first NOR gate will invert Ato 0.
The second NOR gate will invert Bto 0.
- The third NOR gate will combine these two Os and output 1, matching the behavior of an AND
gate.
" Ifeither input is 0 :
One of the NOR gates willoutput 1(since it's inverting a 0).
- The third NOR gate will combine the inputs and output 0, matching the behavior of an AND gate.
Finaloutput: 0 (AND gate behavior).
NOR as OR Gate

he OR gate is simply aNOR gate followed by aNOT gate. ANOR gate can be used to create an OR gate
by combining two NOR gates in the following way
"First NOR Gate :The first NOR gate takes Aand Bas inputs and performs the NOR operation,
producing an output that is 0 when either Aor Bis 1, and 1 when both Aand Bare 0.
Second NOR Gate (acting as a NOT gate): The output from the first NOR gate is then fed into
the second NOR gate, with both inputs of this second NOR gate tied together. This makes the
Second NOR gate act like a NOT gate and inverts the output from the first gate.
Desired Gate NOR Construction

A A
B
-Q B
(2.22 Computer Architecture

Example NOR as OR Gate

" Inputs A = 1 and B = 0: " Inputs A = 0 and B = 0:
First NOR gate: A NOR B = 0. . First NOR gate: A NOR B = 1
Second NOR gate: NOT 0= 1. both inputs are 0). (becau_e
Final output: 1 (0R gate behavior). Second NOR gate: NOT 1 =0.
" Finaloutput: 0 (OR gate behavior).
NOR as NAND Gate

We know that a NAND gate means the NOT of an AND Operation. So, to construct a NANDgate usine
NOR gates, we can simply build an AND gate using NOR gates (as discussed previously) and then we
can add another NOR gate as a NOT gate at the end to invert the result, thus Creating a NAND gate
Thus,the final NOR gate willact as the NOT part of the NAND operation
Desired Gate NOR Construction

Example NOR as NAND Gate

If both inputsare 1:
" The first NOR gate will invert Ato 0.
" The second NOR gate will invert Bto 0.
The third NOR gate willcombine these two Os and output 1.
The fourth NOR gate will invert 1to 0. (NAND gate behavior).
" If either input is 0 :
One of the NOR gates will output 1 (since it's inverting a 0).
" The third NOR gate willcombine the inputs and output 0. matching the behavior of an AND gate.
" The fourth NORgate will invert 0 to 1. (NAND gate behavior).
" If both inputs are 0 :
The first NOR gate will invert A to 1.
" The second NORgate will invert Bto 1.
The third NOR gate willcombine these two 1sand output 0.
The fourth NOR gate will invert 0 to 1. (NAND gate behavior).

NOR as XOR Gate

An XOR gate is made by connecting the output of 3 NOR gates (connected as an AND gate) and tne
output of a NOR gate tothe respective inputs of a NOR gate. This expresses the logical formula (A AN
B) NOR (A NOR B).
1. The first NOR gate computes ANOR B.
2. The second and third NOR gates are used to modity the inputs for further
computation.