Department of Mathematics

School of Physical Sciences

DIT UNIVERSITY, DEHRADUN

Engineering Mathematics-I (MAN101)

Lecture Notes (2025)

UNIT - I

1 Function
A function from set A to set B is a rule which assign all elements of set A to unique
element of set B. Set A is called domain and set B is called co-domain. The collection
of elements of set B which are assigned to some element of set A is called range. The
symbol f : A → B is adopted to represent a function and it is defined as f (x) = y where
x ∈ A, y ∈ B
Examples: Following are some examples of functions;

f (x) = sin(x), 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2 (1)

f (x) = x, π/2 ≤ x ≤ π (2)

f (x) = cos(x), x > π (3)

2 Limit
In symbolic form it is denoted by

lim f (x) = l
x→a

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 NOTE: If function is defined in more than one parts then limit can be evaluated as
LHL and RHL.
LHL = f (a − 0) = lim f (x) = lim f (a − h)
x→a− h→0

RHL = f (a + 0) = lim f (x) = lim f (a + h)

x→a+ h→0

Algebra of Limits: If limx→a f (x) = l1 and limx→a g(x) = l2 then,

• limx→a [ f (x) + g(x)] = l1 + l2

• limx→a [ f (x) − g(x)] = l1 − l2

• limx→a [ f (x) ∗ g(x)] = l1 ∗ l2

• limx→a [ f (x)/g(x)] = l1 /l2 provided l2 6= 0

2.1 Examples
x2 −4
1. Find the limit if exist f (x) = x−2 , x 6= 2.
Solution:

x2 − 4
lim = lim (x + 2) = 4
x→2 x − 2 x→2

2. Check the following limit exist or not : limx→0 sin 1x .

Solution:

RHL = lim f (0 + h)
h→0

= lim f (h)
h→0

= lim sin(1/h)
h→0

= a finite value lying between -1 and 1

Since there is no definite value of limit exist, therefore, RHL does not exist.
LHL= Similarly, left hand limit does not exist.

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3. Show that limx→0 x sin 1x = 0.

Solution:

RHL = lim f (0 + h)
h→0

= lim f (h)
h→0

= lim h sin(1/h)
h→0

= 0.( a finite value lying between -1 and 1)

=0

Similarly, LHL = 0.
Hence, LHL = RHL = 0

4. Show that limx→1 |x−1|

x−1 does not exist.
Solution:

LHL = lim f (1 − h)
h→0
|1 − h − 1|
= lim
h→0 (1 − h − 1)
| − h|
= lim
h→0 −h
h
= lim
h→0 −h

= −1

RHL = lim f (1 + h)
h→0
|1 + h − 1|
= lim
h→0 (1 + h − 1)
|h|
= lim
h→0 h
h
= lim
h→0 h

=1

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 LHS 6= RHS, hence, limit does not exist.
2 +3x+2
5. Evaluate the limit limx→2 x x−2 .
Solution:

LHL = lim f (2 − h)
h→0
(2 − h)2 + 3(2 − h) + 2
= lim
h→0 (2 − h − 2)
12 − 7h + h2
= lim
h→0 −h
= −∞

RHL = lim f (2 + h)
h→0
(2 + h)2 + 3(2 + h) + 2
= lim
h→0 (2 + h − 2)
12 + 7h + h2
= lim
h→0 h
=∞

LHL6=RHL, hence limit does not exit.

1/x
6. Evaluate RHL and LHL limx→0 ee1/x −1
+1
.
Solution:

LHL = lim f (0 − h)
h→0
e−1/h − 1
= lim
h→0 e−1/h + 1

= −1

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 RHL = lim f (0 + h)
h→0
e1/h − 1
= lim
h→0 e1/h + 1
1 − 1/e1/h
= lim
h→0 1 + 1/e1/h

=1

LHL6=RHL, hence limit does not exit.

7. Evaluate the limit limx→1 sin(x−1)

x−1 .
Solution: Try yourself.
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8. Evaluate the limit limx→0 x sin x .
Solution: Try yourself.

9. Discuss the existence of limx→0 f (x) where

(
x2 + 2 if x ≥ 0;
f (x) =
2 − 3x if x < 0.
.
Solution: Try yourself.

10. Let 
 a + bx if x ≤ 1;

f (x) = 4 if x = 1;

b − ax if x > 1.


Find the value of a and b if limx→1 f (x) = f (1)

3 Continuity
Definition: Let a function f (x) which is defined on a point a is said to be continuous at
a if for any given ε > 0 there exist δ > 0 such that

| f (x) − f (a)| < ε

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when
|x − a| < δ

In symbolic form it is denoted by

lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a

NOTE: If function is defined in more than one parts then continuity of function can
be checked as
LHL = f (a − 0) = RHL = f (a + 0) = f (a)

NOTE: All polynomial functions; ex ; sin(x); cos(x); log(x), x > 0 are always con-
tinuous at those points where they are defined.
NOTE: A function is said to be continuous function if it is continuous at each point
of its domain.
NOTE: A function is said to be continuous in closed interval [a, b] if it is continuous
at each point of the interval.
Algebra of Continuous functions: If f (x) and g(x) are continuous at point x = a
then,

• f (x) + g(x) is also continuous at x = a

• f (x) − g(x) is also continuous at x = a

• f (x) ∗ g(x) is also continuous at x = a

• f (x)/g(x) is also continuous at x = a provided g(a) 6= 0

3.1 Examples
Test the continuity of the functions at x = 0:

1. (
x sin(1/x) if x 6= 0;
f (x) =
0 if x = 0.

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 Solution: From Example 3, section (2.1), we have

RHL = 0 = LHS for x 6= 0

also, here we have f (0) = 0,

therefore, LHL = RHL = f (0) imply that the given function f (x) is continuous at
x = 0.

2.
e1/x −1
(
e1/x +1
if x 6= 0;
f (x) =
1 if x = 0.

Solution: From Example 6, section (2.1), we have

LHS = −1; RHL = 1 for x 6= 0

here we have f (0) = 1,

therefore, LHL 6= RHL = f (0) imply that the given function f (x) is not continu-
ous at x = 0.

3.
e1/x
(
e1/x +1
if x 6= 0;
f (x) =
0 if x = 0.

Solution:

LHL = lim f (0 − h)
h→0
e−1/h
= lim
h→0 e−1/h + 1

=0

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 RHL = lim f (0 + h)
h→0
e1/h
= lim
h→0 e1/h + 1
1
= lim
h→0 1 + 1/e1/h

=1

LHL = f (0) = 0 6= RHL, hence function f (x) is not continuous at x = 0.

4. 
sin(a+1)x+sin(x)


 x if x < 0;
f (x) = c if x = 0.
(x+bx2 )1/2 −x1/2



bx3/2
if x > 0

Solution: Try yourself.

5.
sin2 (ax)
(
x2
if x 6= 0;
f (x) =
1 if x = 0.

Solution: Try yourself.

6. Find the value of k for which

(
2kx − 1 if x ≤ 3;
f (x) =
x2 + k if x > 3.

is continuous at x = 3.
Solution: Try yourself.

7. Examine the continuity of the function

(
1 + x2 if x ≤ 2;
f (x) =
3x − 1 if x > 2.

at x = 2.

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 Solution: Try yourself.

4 Differentiability
Derivative at a point:
Let I denote the open interval ]a, b[ in R and a ∈ R. Then a function f : I → R is said
to be differentiable at x = a iff

f (a + h) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)

lim OR lim
h→0 h x→a x−a

exist finitely and this limit is called the derivative of f(x) with respect to x at x = a.
It is denoted by f 0 (a) or by D f (a).
NOTE:
f (a + h) − f (a)
RHD = lim
h→0 h
and
f (a − h) − f (a)
LHD = lim
h→0 −h
Differentiability in an Interval:
Open interval ]a, b[ :– A function f :]a, b[→ R is said to be differentiable in ]a, b[
iff it is differentiable at every point in ]a, b[.
Close interval [a, b] :– A function f : [a, b] → R is said to be differentiable in [a, b]
iff it is differentiable at every point in ]a, b[ as well as LHD at x = b and RHD at x = a
exists.
Theorem: Continuity is a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the existence
of a finite derivative.
Algebra of derivatives: If f (x) and g(x) are differentiable at point x = a and c ∈ R
then,

• (c f )0 (a) = c f 0 (a)

• ( f + g)0 (a) = f 0 (a) + g0 (a)

• ( f − g)0 (a) = f 0 (a) − g0 (a)

• ( f ∗ g)0 (a) = f 0 (a) ∗ g(a) + f (a) ∗ g0 (a)

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  0
f g(a)∗ f 0 (a)− f (a)∗g0 (a)
• g (a) = g(a)2

4.1 Examples
1. Show that the function f (x) = |x| is continuous at x = 0 but not differentiable at
x = 0.
Solution: Continuity of f (x) = |x|

LHL = lim f (0 − h)
h→0

= lim | − h|
h→0

= lim h
h→0

=0

RHL = lim f (0 + h)
h→0

= lim |h|
h→0

= lim h
h→0

=0

f (0) = |0| = 0

hence, f (x) is continuous at x = 0.

Differentiability of f (x) = |x|

f (0 − h) − f (0)
LHD = lim
h→0 −h
| − h| − 0
= lim
h→0 −h
h
= lim
h→0 −h

= −1

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 f (0 + h) − f (0)
RHD = lim
h→0 h
|h| − 0
= lim
h→0 h
h
= lim
h→0 h

=1

Since, LHD 6= RHD, hence f (x) is not differentaible at x = 0.

2. Show that the function f (x) = |x| + |x − 1| is not differentiable at x = 0, 1.

Solution: Here 
 1 − 2x if x < 0;

f (x) = 1 if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1

2x − 1 if x > 1.


At x = 0
f (0 − h) − f (0)
LHD = lim
h→0 −h
[1 − 2(−h)] − 1
= lim
h→0 −h
2h
= lim
h→0 −h

= −2

f (0 + h) − f (0)
RHD = lim
h→0 h
1−1
= lim
h→0 h
0
= lim
h→0 h

=0

Since, LHD 6= RHD, hence f (x) is not differentaible at x = 0.

Similarly, At x = 1

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3. Show that the following function is continuous and differentiable everywhere:
(
x2 sin(1/x) if x 6= 0;
f (x) =
0 if x = 0.

Solution:
Continuity at x = 0

LHL = lim f (0 − h)
h→0
 
−1
2
= lim (−h) sin
h→0 h
= lim 0. (some finite value between -1 and 1 )
h→0

=0

RHL = lim f (0 + h)
h→0
 
2 1
= lim (h) sin
h→0 h
= lim 0. (some finite value between -1 and 1 )
h→0

=0

f (0) = 0

Since, LHL = RHL = f (0), hence f (x) is continuous at x = 0.

Differentiability at x = 0

f (0 − h) − f (0)
LHD = lim
h→0 −h
(−h) sin −1
2


h −0
= lim
h→0
 −h
1
= lim h sin
h→0 h
=0

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 f (0 + h) − f (0)
RHD = lim
h→0 h
2 1


h sin h − 0
= lim
h→0
h 
1
= lim h sin
h→0 h
=0

Since, LHD = RHD, hence f (x) is differentaible at x = 0.

4. Show that the following function is continuous but not differentiable at x = 0:

1/x −1/x
(
−e
x ee1/x +e−1/x if x 6= 0;
f (x) =
0 if x = 0.

Solution: Try yourself.

5. Show that the following function is continuous but not differentiable at x = 0:

xe1/x
(
e1/x +1
if x 6= 0;
f (x) =
0 if x = 0.

Solution: Try yourself.

6. Find the value of a, b if the function given by

(
bx2 − 3 if x ≤ 1;
f (x) =
ax + b if x > 1.

is differentiable at x = 1.
Solution: Try yourself.

5 Indeterminate Forms
Consider the ratio f (x)/g(x) of two functions f (x) and g(x). If at any point x = a, f (a) =
g(a) = 0 then the ratio f (x)/g(x) takes the form 0/0 and it is called indeterminate form.

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 L’Hospital’s Rule
If limit takes the form 0/0 then

f (x) f (x) − f (a) [ f (x) − f (a)]/(x − a) f 0 (x) f 0 (a)

lim = lim = lim = lim 0 = 0
x→a g(x) x→a g(x) − g(a) x→a [g(x) − g(a)]/(x − a) x→a g (x) g (a)

If f 0 (a) = g0 (a) = 0, repeat the application of L’Hospital’s rule on f 0 (x)/g0 (x) and
obtain
f (x) f 0 (x) f 00 (x) f 000 (x)
lim = lim 0 = lim 00 = lim 000
x→a g(x) x→a g (x) x→a g (x) x→a g (x)

NOTE:

1. L’Hospital’s rule can be used only when the ratio is of indeterminate form, that is,
either it is of form 0/0 or ∞/∞.

2. The other indeterminate forms are 0.∞, 00 , ∞0 , 1∞ , ∞ − ∞. In each of these cases,

we can reduce the ratio function to the form 0/0 or ∞/∞ and use this rule.

3. Following forms 0∞ , ∞.∞, ∞ + ∞, ∞∞ , ∞−∞ are not indeterminate forms and we

can not use L’Hospital’s rule.

4. L’Hospital’s rule can also be applied to find the limits as x → ±∞

5.1 Examples
Evaluate following limits:
h x −x i
e −e −2 log(1+x)
1. limx→0 x sin(x)

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 Solution:

ex − e−x − 2 log(1 + x)
lim [0/0]
x→0 x sin(x)
x −x
e + e − 2/(1 + x)
= lim [0/0]
x→0 sin(x) + x cos(x)
ex − e−x + 2/(1 + x)2
= lim
x→0 2 cos(x) − x sin(x)
1−1+2
=
2−0
=1

h i
log(x)
2. limx→0 cot(x)

Solution:

log(x)
lim [∞/∞]
x→0 cot(x)
1/x
= lim [∞/∞]
x→0 −cosec2 (x)
− sin2 (x)
= lim [0/0]
x→0 x
− sin(2x)
= lim
x→0 1
0
=
1
=0

h i
1
3. limx→π/2 sec(x) − 1−sin(x)

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 Solution:
 
1
lim sec(x) − [∞ − ∞]
x→π/2 1 − sin(x)
 
1 1
= lim − [∞ − ∞]
x→π/2 cos(x) 1 − sin(x)
 
1 − sin(x) − cos(x)
= lim [0/0]
x→π/2 cos(x) − cos(x) sin(x)
 
− cos(x) + sin(x)
= lim
x→π/2 − sin(x) + sin2 (x) − cos2 (x)
−0 + 1
=
−1 + 1 − 0
=∞

x
4. limx→∞ 1 + ax
Solution:
 a x
y = lim 1 + [1∞ ]
x→∞ x
n a o
log(y) = lim x log 1 + [∞ × 0]
x→∞ x
log (1 + a/x)
= lim [0/0]
x→∞ 1/x
1 2
1+a/x (−a/x )
= lim
x→∞ −1/x2
a
=
1 + a/x
=a
y = ea

Evaluate the following limits

1.
ex
 
lim 3
x→∞ x

16
2.  
log(1 − x)
lim
x→1 cot(πx)

3.
lim [sec(x) − tan(x)]
x→π/2

4.  
log(sin(x))
lim
x→π/2 (π − 2x)2

5.
sin2 x − x2
lim
x→0 x2 sin2 x

Solution:

sin2 x − x2
 
lim [0/0]
x→0 x2 sin2 x
 
sin(2x) − 2x
= lim [0/0]
x→0 2x sin2 x + x2 sin(2x)
 
2 cos(2x) − 2
= lim [0/0]
x→0 2 sin2 x + 2x sin(2x) + 2x sin(2x) + 2x2 cos(2x)
 
2 cos(2x) − 2
= lim [0/0]
x→0 2 sin2 x + 4x sin(2x) + 2x2 cos(2x)
 
−4 sin(2x)
= lim [0/0]
x→0 2 sin(2x) + 4 sin(2x) + 8x cos(2x) + 4x cos(2x) − 4x2 sin(2x)
 
−4 sin(2x)
= lim [0/0]
x→0 6 sin(2x) + 12x cos(2x) − 4x2 sin(2x)
 
−8 cos(2x)
= lim
x→0 12 cos(2x) + 12 cos(2x) − 24x sin(2x) − 8x sin(2x) − 8x2 cos(2x)
 
−8 cos(2x)
= lim
x→0 24 cos(2x) − 32x sin(2x) − 8x2 cos(2x)
−8
=
24 − 0 − 0
−1
=
3

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 6.
lim (1 − x) tan(πx/2)
x→1

√
f (x)−3
7. Evaluate the limit limx→9 √
x−3
where it is given that f (9) = 9 and f 0 (9) = 4.

8. s
x + sin(x)
lim
x→∞ x − cos2 (x)

Reference Book:
R. K. Jain and S.R.K. Iyenger, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 2nd edition, Narosa
Publishing House, New Delhi, India, 2006.

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