How RAM Works

Random access memory (RAM) is the best known

form of computer memory. RAM is considered
"random access" because you can access any
memory cell directly if you know the row and
column that intersect at that cell.

The opposite of RAM is serial access memory (SAM).

SAM stores data as a series of memory cells that can
only be accessed sequentially (like a cassette tape).
If the data is not in the current location, each
memory cell is checked until the needed data is
found. SAM works very well for memory buffers, where the data is normally stored
in the order in which it will be used (a good example is the texture buffer memory on
a video card). RAM data, on the other hand, can be accessed in any order.

Similar to a microprocessor, a memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made of

millions of transistors and capacitors. In the most common form of computer
memory, dynamic random access memory (DRAM), a transistor and a capacitor are
paired to create a memory cell, which represents a single bit of data. The capacitor
holds the bit of information -- a 0 or a 1 (see How Bits and Bytes Work for
information on bits). The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on
the memory chip read the capacitor or change its state.

A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a 1 in the
memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons. To store a 0, it is emptied. The
problem with the capacitor's bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few
milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work,
either the CPU or the memory controller has to come along and recharge all of the
capacitors holding a 1 before they discharge. To do this, the memory controller reads
the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens
automatically thousands of times per second.

The capacitor in a dynamic RAM memory cell is like a leaky bucket. It needs to be
refreshed periodically or it will discharge to 0. This refresh operation is where
dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of the
time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it
takes time and slows down the memory.

In this article, you'll learn all about what RAM is, what kind you should buy and how
to install it. See the next page to learn more about dynamic RAM and memory cells.

Memory Cells and DRAM

Memory is made up of bits arranged in a two-dimensional grid.
In this figure, red cells represent 1s and white cells represent 0s. In the animation, a
column is selected and then rows are charged to write data into the specific column.

Memory cells are etched onto a silicon wafer in an array of columns (bitlines) and
rows (wordlines). The intersection of a bitline and wordline constitutes the address
of the memory cell.

DRAM works by sending a charge through the appropriate column (CAS) to activate
the transistor at each bit in the column. When writing, the row lines contain the
state the capacitor should take on. When reading, the sense-amplifier determines
the level of charge in the capacitor. If it is more than 50 percent, it reads it as a 1;
otherwise it reads it as a 0. The counter tracks the refresh sequence based on which
rows have been accessed in what order. The length of time necessary to do all this is
so short that it is expressed in nanoseconds (billionths of a second). A memory chip
rating of 70ns means that it takes 70 nanoseconds to completely read and recharge
each cell.

Memory cells alone would be worthless without some way to get information in and
out of them. So the memory cells have a whole support infrastructure of other
specialized circuits. These circuits perform functions such as:

 Identifying each row and column (row address select and column address select)
 Keeping track of the refresh sequence (counter)
 Reading and restoring the signal from a cell (sense amplifier)
 Telling a cell whether it should take a charge or not (write enable)

Other functions of the memory controller include a series of tasks that include
identifying the type, speed and amount of memory and checking for errors.

Static RAM works differently from DRAM. We'll look at how in the next section.

Static RAM
Static RAM uses a completely different technology. In static RAM, a form of flip-flop
holds each bit of memory (see How Boolean Logic Works for details on flip-flops). A
flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors along with some wiring, but
never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic
RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more
space on a chip than a dynamic memory cell. Therefore, you get less memory per
chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive.

Static RAM is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. So
static RAM is used to create the CPU's speed-sensitive cache, while dynamic RAM
forms the larger system RAM space.

Memory chips in desktop computers originally used a pin configuration called dual
inline package (DIP). This pin configuration could be soldered into holes on the
computer's motherboard or plugged into a socket that was soldered on the
motherboard. This method worked fine when computers typically operated on a
couple of megabytes or less of RAM, but as the need for memory grew, the number
of chips needing space on the motherboard increased.

The solution was to place the memory chips, along with all of the support
components, on a separate printed circuit board (PCB) that could then be plugged
into a special connector (memory bank) on the motherboard. Most of these chips
use a small outline J-lead (SOJ) pin configuration, but quite a few manufacturers use
the thin small outline package (TSOP) configuration as well. The key difference
between these newer pin types and the original DIP configuration is that SOJ and
TSOP chips are surface-mounted to the PCB. In other words, the pins are soldered
directly to the surface of the board, not inserted in holes or sockets.

Memory chips are normally only available as part of a card called a module. You've
probably seen memory listed as 8x32 or 4x16. These numbers represent the number
of the chips multiplied by the capacity of each individual chip, which is measured in
megabits (Mb), or one million bits. Take the result and divide it by eight to get the
number of megabytes on that module. For example, 4x32 means that the module
has four 32-megabit chips. Multiply 4 by 32 and you get 128 megabits. Since we
know that a byte has 8 bits, we need to divide our result of 128 by 8. Our result is 16
megabytes!

In the next section we'll look at some other common types of RAM.

Types of RAM
The following are some common types of RAM:

 SRAM: Static random access memory uses multiple transistors, typically four to six, for each
memory cell but doesn't have a capacitor in each cell. It is used primarily for cache.
 DRAM: Dynamic random access memory has memory cells with a paired transistor and
capacitor requiring constant refreshing.
 FPM DRAM: Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form of
DRAM. It waits through the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and
then reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 176 MBps.
 EDO DRAM: Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for all of the
processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of the
first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next bit. It is about five percent faster
than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264 MBps.
 SDRAM: Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst mode
concept to greatly improve performance. It does this by staying on the row containing the
requested bit and moving rapidly through the columns, reading each bit as it goes. The idea
is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence. SDRAM is about five
percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in desktops today. Maximum
transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.
 DDR SDRAM: Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM except that is
has higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).
  RDRAM: Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the previous
DRAM architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory module
(RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration to a standard DIMM. What makes
RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus called the Rambus channel.
RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of 800 MHz, or 1,600 MBps.
Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate much more heat than other types of
chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips are fitted with a heat spreader, which
looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are smaller versions of DIMMs, there are also
SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook computers.
 Credit Card Memory: Credit card memory is a proprietary self-contained DRAM memory
module that plugs into a special slot for use in notebook computers.
 PCMCIA Memory Card: Another self-contained DRAM module for notebooks, cards of this
type are not proprietary and should work with any notebook computer whose system bus
matches the memory card's configuration.
 CMOS RAM: CMOS RAM is a term for the small amount of memory used by your computer
and some other devices to remember things like hard disk settings -- see Why does my
computer need a battery? for details. This memory uses a small battery to provide it with the
power it needs to maintain the memory contents.
 VRAM: VideoRAM, also known as multiport dynamic random access memory (MPDRAM), is
a type of RAM used specifically for video adapters or 3-D accelerators. The "multiport" part
comes from the fact that VRAM normally has two independent access ports instead of one,
allowing the CPU and graphics processor to access the RAM simultaneously. VRAM is located
on the graphics card and comes in a variety of formats, many of which are proprietary. The
amount of VRAM is a determining factor in the resolution and color depth of the display.
VRAM is also used to hold graphics-specific information such as 3-D geometry data and
texture maps. True multiport VRAM tends to be expensive, so today, many graphics cards
use SGRAM (synchronous graphics RAM) instead. Performance is nearly the same, but
SGRAM is cheaper.

For a comprehensive examination of RAM types, check out the Kingston Technology
Ultimate Memory Guide.

Memory Modules

The type of board and connector used for RAM in

desktop computers has evolved over the past few
years. The first types were proprietary, meaning that different computer
manufacturers developed memory boards that would only work with their specific
systems. Then came SIMM, which stands for single in-line memory module. This
memory board used a 30-pin connector and was about 3.5 x .75 inches in size (about
9 x 2 cm). In most computers, you had to install SIMMs in pairs of equal capacity and
speed. This is because the width of the bus is more than a single SIMM. For example,
you would install two 8-megabyte (MB) SIMMs to get 16 megabytes total RAM. Each
SIMM could send 8 bits of data at one time, while the system bus could handle 16
bits at a time. Later SIMM boards, slightly larger at 4.25 x 1 inch (about 11 x 2.5 cm),
used a 72-pin connector for increased bandwidth and allowed for up to 256 MB of
RAM.

As processors grew in speed and bandwidth capability, the industry adopted a new
standard in dual in-line memory module (DIMM). With a whopping 168-pin or
184-pin connector and a size of 5.4 x 1 inch (about 14 x 2.5 cm), DIMMs range in
capacity from 8 MB to 1 GB per module and can be installed singly instead of in pairs.
Most PC memory modules and the modules for the Mac G5 systems operate at 2.5
volts, while older Mac G4 systems typically use 3.3 volts. Another standard, Rambus
in-line memory module (RIMM), is comparable in size and pin configuration to
DIMM but uses a special memory bus to greatly increase speed.

Many brands of notebook computers use proprietary memory modules, but several
manufacturers use RAM based on the small outline dual in-line memory module
(SODIMM) configuration. SODIMM cards are small, about 2 x 1 inch (5 x 2.5 cm), and
have 144 or 200 pins. Capacity ranges from 16 MB to 1 GB per module. To conserve
space, the Apple iMac desktop computer uses SODIMMs instead of the traditional
DIMMs. Sub-notebook computers use even smaller DIMMs, known as MicroDIMMs,
which have either 144 pins or 172 pins.

Most memory available today is highly reliable. Most systems simply have the
memory controller check for errors at start-up and rely on that. Memory chips with
built-in error-checking typically use a method known as parity to check for errors.
Parity chips have an extra bit for every 8 bits of data. The way parity works is simple.
Let's look at even parity first.

When the 8 bits in a byte receive data, the chip adds up the total number of 1s. If the
total number of 1s is odd, the parity bit is set to 1. If the total is even, the parity bit is
set to 0. When the data is read back out of the bits, the total is added up again and
compared to the parity bit. If the total is odd and the parity bit is 1, then the data is
assumed to be valid and is sent to the CPU. But if the total is odd and the parity bit is
0, the chip knows that there is an error somewhere in the 8 bits and dumps the data.
Odd parity works the same way, but the parity bit is set to 1 when the total number
of 1s in the byte are even.

The problem with parity is that it discovers errors but does nothing to correct them.
If a byte of data does not match its parity bit, then the data are discarded and the
system tries again. Computers in critical positions need a higher level of fault
tolerance. High-end servers often have a form of error-checking known as
error-correction code (ECC). Like parity, ECC uses additional bits to monitor the data
in each byte. The difference is that ECC uses several bits for error checking -- how
many depends on the width of the bus -- instead of one. ECC memory uses a special
algorithm not only to detect single bit errors, but actually correct them as well. ECC
memory will also detect instances when more than one bit of data in a byte fails.
Such failures are very rare, and they are not correctable, even with ECC.
The majority of computers sold today use nonparity memory chips. These chips do
not provide any type of built-in error checking, but instead rely on the memory
controller for error detection.

How Much RAM Do You Need?

It's been said that you can never have enough money, and the same holds true for
RAM, especially if you do a lot of graphics-intensive work or gaming. Next to the CPU
itself, RAM is the most important factor in computer performance. If you don't have
enough, adding RAM can make more of a difference than getting a new CPU!

If your system responds slowly or accesses the hard drive constantly, then you need
to add more RAM. If you are running Windows XP, Microsoft recommends 128MB as
the minimum RAM requirement. At 64MB, you may experience frequent application
problems. For optimal performance with standard desktop applications, 256MB is
recommended. If you are running Windows 95/98, you need a bare minimum of 32
MB, and your computer will work much better with 64 MB. Windows NT/2000 needs
at least 64 MB, and it will take everything you can throw at it, so you'll probably
want 128 MB or more.

Linux works happily on a system with only 4 MB of RAM. If you plan to add
X-Windows or do much serious work, however, you'll probably want 64 MB. Mac OS
X systems should have a minimum of 128 MB, or for optimal performance, 512 MB.

The amount of RAM listed for each system above is estimated for normal usage --
accessing the Internet, word processing, standard home/office applications and light
entertainment. If you do computer-aided design (CAD), 3-D modeling/animation or
heavy data processing, or if you are a serious gamer, then you will most likely need
more RAM. You may also need more RAM if your computer acts as a server of some
sort (Web pages, database, application, FTP or network).

Another question is how much VRAM you want on your video card. Almost all cards
that you can buy today have at least 16 MB of RAM. This is normally enough to
operate in a typical office environment. You should probably invest in a 32-MB or
better graphics card if you want to do any of the following:

 Play realistic games

 Capture and edit video
 Create 3-D graphics
 Work in a high-resolution, full-color environment
 Design full-color illustrations

When shopping for video cards, remember that your monitor and computer must be
capable of supporting the card you choose.

How to Install RAM

To install more RAM, look for memory modules on your computer's motherboard. At
the left is a Macintosh G4 and on the right is a PC.

Most of the time, installing RAM is a very simple and straightforward procedure. The
key is to do your research. Here's what you need to know:

 How much RAM you have

 How much RAM you wish to add
 Form factor
 RAM type
 Tools needed
 Warranty
 Where it goes

RAM is usually sold in multiples of 16 megabytes: 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024
(which is the same as 1GB). This means that if you currently have a system with 64
MB RAM and you want at least 100 MB RAM total, then you will probably need to
add another 64 MB module.

Once you know how much RAM you want, check to see what form factor(card type)
you need to buy. You can find this in the manual that came with your computer, or
you can contact the manufacturer. An important thing to realize is that your options
will depend on the design of your computer. Most computers sold today for normal
home/office use have DIMM slots. High-end systems are moving to RIMM
technology, which will eventually take over in standard desktop computers as well.
Since DIMM and RIMM slots look a lot alike, be very careful to make sure you know
which type your computer uses. Putting the wrong type of card in a slot can cause
damage to your system and ruin the card.

You will also need to know what type of RAM is required. Some computers require
very specific types of RAM to operate. For example, your computer may only work
with 60ns-70ns parity EDO RAM. Most computers are not quite that restrictive, but
they do have limitations. For optimal performance, the RAM you add to your
computer must also match the existing RAM in speed, parity and type. The most
common type available today is SDRAM.

Additionally, some computers support Dual Channel RAM configuration either as an

option or as a requirement. Dual Channel means that RAM modules are installed in
matched pairs, so if there is a 512MB RAM card installed, there is another 512 MB
card installed next to it. When Dual Channel is an optional configuration, installing
RAM in matched pairs speeds up the performance of certain applications. When it's
a requirement, as in computers with the Mac G5 chip(s), the computer will not
function properly without matched pairs of RAM chips.

For complete guidelines on setting up Dual Channel configuration on Intel Pentium

4-based systems, check out this guide.

To install more RAM, look for memory modules on your computer's motherboard. At
the left is a Macintosh G4 and on the right is a PC.

Before you open your computer, check to make sure you won't be voiding the
warranty. Some manufacturers seal the case and request that the customer have an
authorized technician install RAM. If you're set to open the case, turn off and unplug
the computer. Ground yourself by using an anti-static pad or wrist strap to discharge
any static electricity. Depending on your computer, you may need a screwdriver or
nut-driver to open the case. Many systems sold today come in tool-less cases that
use thumbscrews or a simple latch.
The actual installation of the memory module does not normally require any tools.
RAM is installed in a series of slots on the motherboard known as the memory bank.
The memory module is notched at one end so you won't be able to insert it in the
wrong direction. For SIMMs and some DIMMs, you install the module by placing it in
the slot at approximately a 45-degree angle. Then push it forward until it is
perpendicular to the motherboard and the small metal clips at each end snap into
place. If the clips do not catch properly, check to make sure the notch is at the right
end and the card is firmly seated. Many DIMMs do not have metal clips; they rely on
friction to hold them in place. Again, just make sure the module is firmly seated in
the slot.

Once the module is installed, close the case, plug the computer back in and power it
up. When the computer starts the POST, it should automatically recognize the
memory. That's all there is to it!