Substation Earthing practices:

Earthing requirements and practices:

Definition: The process of transferring the immediate discharge of the

electrical energy directly to the earth by the help of the low resistance
wire is known as the electrical earthing.

24-Feb-23 1
Earthing requirements and practices:
Earthing can be done by electrically connecting the respective parts in the
installation to some system of electrical conductors or electrodes placed near
the soil or below the ground level. The earthing mat or electrode under the
ground level have flat iron riser through which all the non-current-carrying
metallic parts of the equipment are connected.

When the fault occurs the fault current from the equipment flows through the
earthing system to the earth and thereby protect the equipment from the fault
current. At the time of the fault, the earth mat conductors rise to the voltage
which is equal to the resistance of the earth mat multiplied by a ground fault.

The earthing is essential because of the following reasons

The earthing protects the personnel from the shortcircuit current.
The earthing provides the easiest path to the flow of shortcircuit current
even after the failure of the insulation.
The earthing protects the apparatus and personnel from the high voltage
surges and lightning discharge.
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 Types of Electrical Earthing
The electrical equipment mainly consists of two non-current carrying parts.
These parts are neutral of the system or frame of the electrical equipment.
From the earthing of these two non-current carrying parts of the electrical
system earthing can be classified into two types.
Neutral Earthing and Equipment Earthing.

Neutral Earthing
In neutral earthing, the neutral of the system is directly connected to earth by
the help of the GI wire. The neutral earthing is also called the system earthing.
Such type of earthing is mostly provided to the system which has star
winding. For example, the neutral earthing is provided in the generator,
transformer, motor etc.

Equipment Earthing
Such type of earthing is provided to the electrical equipment. The non-current
carrying part of the equipment like their metallic frame is connected to the
earth by the help of the conducting wire. If any fault occurs in the apparatus,
the short-circuit current to pass the earth by the help of wire. Thus, protect the
system from damage.
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 Neutral Grounding or Grounded Neutral System :
Need for Neutral Grounding :
At present, there is a trend towards effectively earthed systems because, in the case of
large cities and industrial areas, the continuity of supply is so important that multiple
lines or two-directional feeds are a must. The momentary line trip out on such systems
will not affect the continuity of supply because additional circuits are available.

For this purpose, large equipment may be tied to these lines. Hence, the lightning
arrestors costs and insulation costs of transformers and other equipment should be
minimum.

This can be done only by effective grounding because when compared to other types
of grounded systems, effectively earthed systems are less expensive for all operating
voltages, as the voltage of healthy phases in case of line to ground fault does not
exceed 80% of the line to line voltage, whereas in case of other groundings the voltage
of healthy phases rises to about 100% of line to line voltage.

Hence, to ensure reliability and effective protection, the modern electrical circuits are
effectively grounded. In a grounded neutral system or neutral grounding, the neutral of
a system is connected to the earth or ground.

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 Types of Neutral Grounding :
Various methods of grounding the neutral of a system are,
Solid Grounding - In this method, the neutral is directly connected to the
earth through a wire of negligible resistance and reactance.
Resistance Grounding - In this method, a resistor is inserted between the
path connecting the neutral to the earth to limit the earth fault current to a
safer value.
Arc Suppression Coil (Peterson coil) Grounding - This method uses an
iron-cored reactor connected between the neutral point and the earth.
Reactance Grounding - In this method, the neutral wire is connected to the
earth through a reactance.
Voltage Transformer Grounding - Here the primary winding of the voltage
transformer is connected between the neutral and earth and the secondary is
connected to a relay through a low resistor.

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 Advantages of Neutral Grounding :
The following are the advantages of neutral grounding, The neutral point is
effectively held at neutral i.e., the neutral point is stable under all conditions.
Since the neutral point is not shifted, the voltage of healthy phases with respect
to earth remains at normal value, unlike the ungrounded system where the
voltages of healthy phases during an earth fault increase by √3 times their
normal value.

In a neutral grounded system, the voltage surges caused by arcing grounds are
eliminated due to which the life of insulation in this system is long. Hence, the
maintenance, repairs, and breakdowns are reduced. Also, the continuity of
supply is improved.

The overvoltages due to static induced charges and lightning surges are
immediately discharged to earth without causing any disturbances.
The earth fault current flowing through the neutral ground circuit is made almost
equal and opposite to the line to earth capacitive currents of the healthy phases.
Therefore, the arcing grounds are extinguished and the overvoltage surge due to
arcing grounds is prevented.
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 Floating Neutral

Floating Neutral is because of its connections with the Ground. It either

gets loose and sometimes even breaks, which makes the Neutral to float.
This can happen any where from electricity board to your final
terminations. Primary cause is due to rust, corrosion, or a mechanical
stress.

Due to this faulty NEUTRAL, the 0V reference no longer exists. Which in

turns makes the voltage out of balance, so some of your appliances may
draw less voltage than they should while others draw more. And, you
might feel flickering lights. And, in some cases, the power outlet/socket
could malfunction, which might damage your devices and pose a fire
hazards.

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 Earth Resistivity

Definition: The measure of the resistance offered by the soil in the flow of
electricity, is called the soil resistivity. The resistivity of the soil depends
on the various factors likes soil composition, moisture, temperature, etc.
Generally, the soil is not homogenous, and their resistivity varies with the
depth. The soil having a low resistivity is good for designing the grounding
system.

The resistivity of the soil is measured in ohmmeter or ohm-centimeters.

The resistivity of the soil mainly depends on its temperature. When the
temperature of the soil is more than 0º, then its effect on soil resistivity is
negligible. At 0º the water starts freezing and resistivity increases. The
magnitude of the current also affects the resistivity of the soil. If the
magnitude of current dissipated in the soil is high, it may cause significant
drying of soil and increase its resistivity.

The resistivity of the soil varies with the depth. The lower layers of the soil
have greater moisture content and lower resistivity. If the lower layer
contains hard and rocky layers, then their resistivity may increase with the
depth.
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 Measurement of Soil Resistivity
The resistivity of the soil is usually measured by the four spike methods. In
this method the four spikes arranged in the straight line are driven into the soil
at equal distance.
A known current is passed between electrode C1 and C2 and potential drop V is
measured across P1 and P2. The current I developed an electric field which is
proportional to current density and soil resistivity. The voltage V is
proportional to this field.
The soil resistivity is proportional to the ratio of the voltage V and current I
and is given as

Where ρ is the resistivity of the

soil and their unit is ohmmeters. S
is the horizontal space between
the spikes in m and b is the depth
of burial in metre.
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 Step, Touch and mesh potential
"Step voltage" is the voltage between the feet of a person standing near an
energized grounded object. It is equal to the difference in voltage, given by the
voltage distribution curve, between two points at different distances from the
"electrode". A person could be at risk of injury during a fault simply by
standing near the grounding point.

"Touch voltage" is the voltage between the energized object and the feet of a
person in contact with the object. It is equal to the difference in voltage
between the object and a point some distance away. The touch voltage could
be nearly the full voltage across the grounded object if that object is grounded
at a point remote from the place where the person is in contact with it.

"Mesh voltage" is the largest potential difference between metallic objects

connected to the grid, and soil within the grid, under worst-case fault
conditions. It is significant because a person may be standing inside the grid at
a point with a large voltage relative to the grid itself.

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 Step, Touch and mesh potential
In the figure below (LHS), Ground Network is the ground Mat. Now consider a
line to ground fault on a Transmission Tower in the Switchyard area. The
fault current on a transmission tower will travel down the grounding conductor
and legs and then spread out over the surface before going deeper, thereby posing
a potential hazard to utility workers in the vicinity. The closer to the tower legs,
the greater the concentration of current and the higher the voltage..

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 Step, Touch and mesh potential

Current flow causes a voltage drop at the earth‟s surface. A person standing
with feet apart will develop a portion of this potential difference from foot to
foot. Resistance increases as current flows away from the point of entry into
the soil at a ground rod or tower leg. Therefore, the risk to personnel is greatest
near the point of entry, with the voltage drop over the same span becoming less
and less with distance.
Mitigating Step and Touch Potential hazards is usually accomplished through
one or more of the following three main techniques:

Reduction in the Resistance to Ground of the grounding system.

Proper placement of ground conductors
The addition of resistive surface layers

Thus if ever any incident occurs at the Switchyard area, never run away
rather take smaller step to exit from the Switchyard. As longer step will
cause high voltage across the feet which might be dangerous.

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 Substation Earthing Mat
The earth mats or grounding mats bring the connection to the earth indoors.
They usually connect through a conductor inserted within the ground port of
an electrical outlet. They help in limiting the ground potential & protect
against the faulty current. They are used in a place where the large fault
current is to be experienced.

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 Substation Earthing Mat

Electrical power systems comprise a network of electrical elements that

generate, distribute and transmit electrical energy through transmission lines.
The substation grounding systems are made from a network of conductors
interconnecting the metallic parts of equipment and structures and an
arrangement of conductors buried underground.

These systems provide an

electrical connection to the
earth. In general, the earth is
composed of several layers of
soil at any location selected for
substation construction. The soil
is a part of the fault circuit;
therefore, a protection circuit is
needed. That is the reason why
earth mats or ground mats are
used to protect humans who
may come in contact with this
fault circuit.
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 Without the earth mat, the electricity or the fault current that occurred may
directly flow into the electrical equipment causing the increase in temperature
or the heating up of the electrical equipment. This further leads to damage or
hazardous situations in the areas exposed to fault currents.

As an important part of the substation grounding system, earth mats should:

1) Ensure safety against electrical shocks by keeping the touch and earth
potential in the switchyard under any earth fault condition within safe limits.
2) Provide neutral earthing or ground connection to connect the neutrals of
stat connected to transformer‟s winding.
3) Discharge the overvoltage from overhead lightning masts or ground wires
to the earth for providing a ground path for surge arresters.
4) Arrange a path to discharge the charge between phase and ground using
Earthing switches.
5) Provide equipment earthing or earth connections to the substation and other
non-current carrying metallic parts in the sub-station.
6) Ensure the safety of personnel and the general public through touch and
step potential.

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 Fencing
Fences around substations are essential to keep people safe and most often,
these fences are metallic, due to economics, which poses some earthing safety
challenges. These metallic fences which are easily accessible to the public and
personnel must be adequately earthed and the touch voltages on these fences
during an electrical fault must not exceed safe limits.
Fence positions and earthing arrangements
Fence is positioned inside the area of main
grid.
Fence is positioned on the boundary of the
main grid.
Fence is positioned outside but close to the
boundary of the main grid.
Fence is positioned outside but far away the
boundary of the main grid.
The last case is where the fence is not
connected to the main grid:
Fence is positioned outside but far away the
boundary of the main grid.

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 Procedure of Laying Earthing-Mat
The inter link is made through flat or rod conductor which is called as Earth
Mat or Grid. It keeps the surface of substation equipment as nearly as absolute
earth potential as possible. To achieve the primary requirement of Earthing
system, the Earth Mat should be design properly by considering the safe limit
of Step Potential, Touch Potential and Transfer Potential.

The factors which influence the earth mat design are: Magnitude of Fault
Current, Duration of Fault, Soil Resistivity, Resistivity of Surface Material,
Shock Duration, Material of Earth Mat, Conductor Earthing Mat Geometry.

The design parameters are: Size of Earth Grid Conductor, Safe Step and
Touch Potential, Mesh Potential (Emesh), Grid configuration for Safe
Operation, Number of Electrodes required
Design Procedure The Investigation of soil characteristics has to be done
along with the determination of maximum ground current. After that
preliminary designing of grounding system need to be done. After that
calculation are made possible.

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 Procedure of Laying Earthing-Mat

Underground Horizontal Earth Mesh (Mat/Grid)

The mesh is formed by placing mild steel bars placed in X and Y directions in
mesh formation in the soil at a depth of about 0.5 m below the surface of
substation floor in the entire substation area except for the foundations. The
crossings of the horizontal bars in X and Y directions are welded.
The earthing rods have also placed the border of the fence, surrounding building
foundations, surrounding the transformer foundations, inside fenced areas,
etc. The mesh ensures uniform and zero potential distribution on the horizontal
surface of the floor of the substation hence low “step potential” in the event of
flow of earth fault current.

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 Procedure of Laying Earthing-Mat
The following steps are involved in the design of earthing mat:
1) The layout of the sub station, determine the area to be covered by the
earthing mat.
2) Determine the soil resistivity at the sub station site. The resistivity of
the earth varies within extremely wide limits, between 1 and 10,000
ohm-meter. The resistivity of the soil at many station sites has been
found to be non- uniform.

Variation of the resistivity of the soil with depth is more predominant as

compared to the variation with horizontal distances. To design the most
economical and technically sound grounding system for large stations, it is
necessary to obtain accurate data on the soil resistivity and on its variation
at the station site. Resistivity measurements at the site will reveal whether
the soil is homogeneous or nonuniform.

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 Procedure of Laying Earthing-Mat
Primary requirement of Earthing is to have a low earth resistance. Substation
involves many Earthings thro‟ individual Electrodes, which will have fairly high
resistance. But if these individual electrodes are inter linked inside the soil, it
increases the area in contact with soil and creates number of parallel paths. Hence
the value of the earth resistance in the inter linked state which is called combined
earth value which will be much lower than the individual value.

The inter link is made thro flat or rod conductor which is called as Earth Mat or
Grid. It keeps the surface of substation equipment as nearly as absolute earth
potential as possible.

To achieve the primary requirement of Earthing system, the Earth Mat should be
design properly by considering the safe limit of Step Potential, Touch Potential and
Transfer Potential.

In case the soil is found uniform, conventional methods are applicable for the
computation of earth resistivity. When the soil is found non- uniform, either a
gradual variation or a two-layer model may be adopted for the computation of earth
resistivity.

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 Procedure of Laying Earthing-Mat
Earthing Electrodes (Spikes)
Several identical earth electrode is driven vertically into the soil and are welded to
the earthing rods of the underground Mesh. Larger number of earth electrodes gives
lower earth resistance.
The number of Earth-Electrodes (Spikes) Ns for soil resistivity 500-ohm meter and
earth fault current Is is :
Ns = Is / 250 Amperes,
i.e., approximately 250 Amp per spike, for soil resistivity of 500 ohm-meter.
The number of Earth-Electrodes (Spikes) Ns for soil resistivity 5000-ohm meter is
Ns = Is / 500 Amperes
i.e., approximately 500 Amp per spike, for soil resistivity of < 5000 ohm-meter.
Is = Short Circuit level of the substation

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 Earthing bonding
Bonding or electrical bonding is the process of connecting and permanently joining
two electrical conductors, machines, pipes, devices and all the metallic parts in the
power installations. In this process, all the dead metallic parts (non-current carrying
under normal condition) of the installations are connected through a conductor wire
which equalize the intentional difference between them.
This way, a person is still protected (from getting electric shock) even if he touches
the two (bonded) machines at the same time connected to the different sources. In
other words, the bonding rod equalizes and makes sure the same electrical potential
levels on the both surfaces. This way, there is no chance of current flow due to the
lack of potential difference, hence the system and personnel is well protected.

23
 Earthing bonding-2 types
Main equipotential bonding connects together all conductive parts of
the main engineering services in an installation, to the main earthing
terminal. Examples of the main engineering services are:
Metal pipes for central heating, gas, water
Metal ducting for heating and air conditioning systems
Structural metal parts of the building

Supplementary equipotential bonding is generally applied to a

location in an installation. It connects together all extraneous
conductive parts and all exposed conductive parts in the location.
Extra safety measures should be applied to locations where electrical
equipment is used in close proximity to water or steam. Kitchens,
utility rooms, bathrooms and shower rooms are such locations.

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 Measurement of Earthing Resistance
A knowledge of earth resistivity (or specific resistance) maybe of value in
determining something of the composition of earth, such for example, as
moisture content, whether it contains oil, ore of high conductivity, etc., or
in the calculation or mitigation of damages to pipe systems by electrolysis
caused by the returm current of street-railway systems.

For some of these or other reasons we may wish to determine the

resistivity of limited portions of. the earth. For those cases in which we
desire the resistivity of a fairly large portion of earth, extending to a
considerable depth, or where there are reasons why we should not disturb
the portion of earth to be measured, the following method is suggested:

Four holes are made in the earth approximately uniformly spaced in a

straight line. The diameter of the holes is not more than 10 per cent of the
distance between them, and all extend to approximately the same depth,
which is usually that at which we are most concerned with the resistivity.
In each hole is placed an electrode, which makes electrical contact with
the earth only near the bottom, as shown in Fig.
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 Measurement of Earthing Resistance
This constitutes a four-terminal conductor the resistance of which depends upon
the distance between the electrodes and the resistivity, mainly in a region whose
linear dimensions are of the same order as the distance between the outside
electrodes, but does not depend appreciably upon the size of the electrodes nor the
kind of electrical connection they make with the earth. Therefore, if the depth of
the holes, the distance between them, and the resistance (using 1 and 4 as current
and 2 and 3 as potential terminals, or 2 and 3 as current and 1 and 4 as potential
terminals) are measured, we have .data from which the effective resistivity in the
vicinity can be calculated.

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 Measurement of Earthing Resistance

If the holes are not in a straight line, or are not of a uniform depth or
spacing, the resistivity is easily calculated when the depth of each of the
holes and the distances of each from each of the other three are known.
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 Earthing Equipment and Material

All earthing products are available to meet the design criteria and construction
specification of the earthing systems for substations and equipment for 33kV
and 132kV substations.
This include copper earth tapes with typical dimensions 32mm x 4mm, 40mm x
6mm, 50mm x 4mm and 50mm x 6mm.
With respect to high voltage earthing applications in the power utility sector the
following items would normally be earthed or bonded to the main earth grid:
•Overhead line termination structures including towers, gantries and earthed
wood pole structures adjacent to the substation
•Power cable sheaths and armours
•Transformer and reactor banks, cooler and radiators, tap changers, earthing
resistors, earthing reactors, high voltage transformer neutral connections
•Metal clad switchgear assemblies and cases, isolators and earth switch bases
•Metal gantries and structures and metalwork mounted on wood structures
•Metallic structures including steel frames (bonded at each corner) rebars and
piles
•Panels, cubicles, kiosks, LV AC equipment, lighting and security masts

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 Earthing Equipment and Material

Depending on soil resistivity, the earth conductor (flats) shall be buried at

the following depths.

Soil Resistivity in ohms/metre Economical depth of Burial in metres

1) 50 – 100 0.5
2) 100 – 400 1.0
3) 400 – 1000 1.5

Dry Material AC Resistance Measurement The materials were inserted into the
test arrangement. The electrodes were applied and 20 kg weight added. The AC
resistance was measured using the LCR meter set at 120 Hz and 1 kHz.

Wet Material Resistance Measurement The material was submerged in

distilled water for 60 minutes. The materials were removed from the water and
allowed to drain for 10 minutes. The materials were inserted into the test
arrangement. The electrodes were applied and 20 kg weight added. The AC
resistance was measured using the LCR meter set at 120 Hz and 1 kHz for 10, 20,
30, 60, 90, 120 minutes after removal from the water.
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 Earthing Equipment and Material

Copper.
Copper is by far the most universally used material for earthing systems. It can
be supplied in various forms:- Flat tape, round bar or stranded cable. It can be
readily sized to withstand all standard fault currents and duration's. It is highly
conductive for both temperature and voltage.
It has the advantage of being practically corrosion resistant in most oil conditions
although due to the grid configuration of the earth mat it is possible to form a
galvanic cell with any other buried structural steel work or steel or lead pipes / cable
armour.

It can increase the corrosion rate of these other metals. Therefore some preventive
measures may have to be considered. It can be used effectively above and below
ground.

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 Earthing Equipment and Material

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 Earthing Equipment and Material

Aluminium. Can be readily sized to withstand all standard fault currents and
duration's. With the necessity to restrict aluminium to a lower maximum temperature
than copper and the fact that aluminium has a lower current density capacity, an
aluminium conductor has to be approximately 60% larger than copper for the same
current withstand capacity. It is highly conductive for both temperature and voltage.

Although it can be used above ground without any major corrosion problems it is
rarely used below ground because of its high corrosive rate in certain soil conditions.

It has an added disadvantage that the corrodded metal is non conductive for all
practical grounding purposes. If it is necessary to use it below ground a soil survey
should be made to confirm its suitability. It has the advantage of being practically
corrosion resistant in most oil conditions although due to the grid configuration of
the earth mat it is possible to form a galvanic cell with any other buried structural
steel work or steel or lead pipes / cable armour.

Although aluminium size for size is cheaper than copper the cost of an equivalent
current rated aluminium conductor at to days prices is lower. So there are some
savings to be achieved by using aluminium but not a great amount.
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 Earthing Equipment and Material

Steel. It can be readily sized to withstand all standard fault currents and
duration's. As with aluminium, steel has a lower current density capacity
compared to copper therefore the cross sectional area has to be increased
by approximately 175% in order for it to carry the same fault current as
copper and 82% increase over the aluminium size.

It is conductive for both temperature and

voltage but not as good as copper or
aluminium.

It can be used above or below ground

but will need protection against
corrosion.

This can be done by either galvanising or

the use of corrosionresistant steel and
possibly combined with cathodic
protection.
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 Earthing Equipment and Material

Earth rods.
When and where are they used?
There are generally three specific areas where earth rods can be used to aid
the earth grid design. Typically the main earth grid is buried to a depth of
600mm.
In areas where the top layer of soil is subjected to a large variation in
moisture content and temperature, earth rods can be added to reach down to
the lower more stable layers.
Also if from the soil resistivity tests it has been discovered that the deeper
down layers have significantly lower resistivity figures then by installing
rods advantage can be taken of these values.
Equipment such as CVT's and Surge arresters which are connected between
line and earth, have relatively low impedance to steep fronted surges
allowing high frequency currents from lightning, switching transient
impulses or carrier protection signals to flow to earth.

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 Earthing Equipment and Material

Earth rods.
Unless a low impedance earth connection is provided for items of plant, the
effectiveness of the equipment could be impaired and high transient
potentials could appear on the earthing connections local to the equipment.

Surge arresters should be sited as close as practicable to the item of plant it is

protecting. The earth connection made between the earthing points of the
plant and the arrester should be as short and straight as possible.

If the connection is relatively long, then by routing it in close proximity to

the line conductor between the arrester and the plant and by additionally
connecting the arrester earth terminal to an earth rod the effectiveness of the
arrester can be improved.

Separate earthing of boundary fences.

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 Earthing Equipment and Material

Practical sizes and lengths.

Earth rods can be made from solid copper, stainless steel or copper bonded
steel. Most manufacturers supply the rods in various different diameters from
10 to 25 mm and in lengths from 1.2 to 3 m. The main factor in deciding the
diameter of the rod is the soil conditions into which it is to be driven. In
general 16mm diameter rods seems to be the most common.
Increasing the diameter to reduce the earth resistance is not cost effective; by
increasing the diameter from 12mm to 50m only reduces its resistance by
about 9.5%
As mentioned above the rods come in various lengths up to 3m, all of which
can be coupled together to extend the rod to the overall length required. The
choice of length of each section can vary depending on how it is to be
installed.
The overall length of the rod will depend on its purpose. For fence earthing
where the object is for a good connection to earth, a rod length of 3-4m is
generally used

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 Dimensioning of Earth Conductors
EARTH RESISTANCE CALCULATOR FOR SINGLE ELECTRODE

Driving metallic earth rod in to ground is one of the basic steps in creating
suitable earth or ground reference for an electrical installation. For a single
electrode driven in to ground the equation for effective earth or ground
resistance value is given by following equation:

The following calculator can be used to calculate the earth or ground resistance
for a single electrode driven in to ground. Typical soil resistivity values as
provided in IEEE Std 80 is used or instead user can input soil resistivity data
directly in to calculator. Note that conduction in soil is largely electrolytic. The
amount of moisture and dissolved salts affects the resistivity of soil. Without
actual measurement, accurate characterization of a particular soil as „wet organic
soil‟ or „moist soil‟ is hard to define.
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 Dimensioning of Earth Conductors

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 Dimensioning of Earth Conductors

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 Dimensioning of Earth Conductors
Resistance of the tower ground ring:

D = L/π– Diameter of the ring in m, L – length of the ring tape in m, d – half

the width of the tape in m, ρE – soil resistivity in Ωm and

Resistance of the grounding rod with depth h:

L – length of the grounding rod in m
d – diameter of the grounding rod in m
ρE – soil resistivity in Ωm

Resistance of the grounding system:

As the tapes and vertical rods of the external rods system are connected
with the steel immersed in the stop footing concrete of the antenna tower,
they have to made of precious metals, such as copper-bonded steel, stainless
steel or solid copper. Copper-bonded steel materials were applied in the
presented installation. This allowed to decrease the grounding (earthing)
costs by 45% comparing to the stainless steel or solid copper.

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