Data Communication and Computer Networks [3 1 0 4]

(CSS 2102)

Dr Raghavendra Achar

Cabin No : 90
Abstract syllabus

Introduction to data communication, Digital and analog signals, Line coding, Modulation
schemes, Multiplexing, Transmission media. Introduction to computer network, Protocol,
Layered architecture, Topology and network devices, Data link layer services, Error detection
and correction, Flow control, Access control: CSMA/CD, Ethernet Frame, Network layer
services, IP addressing, IP datagram, Fragmentation, Options. Routing protocols. ARP, ICMP,
Transport layer services-TCP, UDP. Application layer services- DNS, DHCP, HTTP, etc.

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Course outcomes

CO1: Articulate various components and functionalities in data communication system.

CO2: Demonstrate the functionalities of the data link layer, including framing,
addressing, error detection and correction, flow control mechanisms.
CO3: Design appropriate IP addresses for different sized networks based on addressing
schemes and use appropriate routing protocols.
CO4: Illustrate the usage of transport layer protocol in transmission of data packets in
computer networks.
CO5: Demonstrate various application layer protocols to solve challenges in real world
scenario.

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Introduction
Introduction to data communication, communications models, Digital and analog
signals, Line coding, Manchester encoding, differential Manchester encoding,
Modulation schemes, Multiplexing, Transmission media. [8 hours]

Computer Network
Introduction, Network Topology, Types, Network devices, protocol, layered
architecture, physical layer, data link layer, error detection and correction, flow
control, Ethernet Frame Format, access control, CSMA/CD. [8 hours]

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Network Layer
Network layer services, IP addressing, Classful addressing, Classless addressing,
Subnetting, Masking, Variable length subnetting, Special address, NAT, IPv6 addressing,
Direct and Indirect Delivery, Forwarding, IP datagram, Fragmentation, Options. Checksum,
Routing protocols, ARP, ICMP.
[21 hours ]

Transport Layer
Introduction, TCP Services, TCP Features, Segment, TCP Connection, Windows in TCP,
Flow Control, Error control, Congestion control, TCP Timers, UDP introduction, datagram
format, UDP services, applications. [7hours]

Application Layer
Application layer services, DNS, DHCP, HTTP [4Hours]

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Network Layer
Network layer services, IP addressing, Classful addressing, Classless addressing,
Subnetting, Masking, Variable length subnetting, Special address, NAT, IPv6 addressing,
Direct and Indirect Delivery, Forwarding, IP datagram, Fragmentation, Options. Checksum,
Routing protocols, ARP, ICMP.
[21 hours ]

Transport Layer
Introduction, TCP Services, TCP Features, Segment, TCP Connection, Windows in TCP,
Flow Control, Error control, Congestion control, TCP Timers, UDP introduction, datagram
format, UDP services, applications. [7hours]

Application Layer
Application layer services, DNS, DHCP, HTTP [4Hours]

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References:

1. Behrouz A. Forouzan, TCP/IP Protocol Suite, 4th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill 2017.
2. Behrouz Forouzan, Introduction to data communication & networking (5e), Tata
McGraw Hill, New Delhi-2017.
3. William Stallings, Data & Computer Communications (10e), Pearson Education Inc.,
Noida, 2017.
4. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Computer Network, 5th Edition Prentice Hall of India Pvt
Ltd 2016.
5. Larry L. Peterson, Bruce S. Davie, Computer Networks, 6th Edition, 2020.

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Course outcomes

CO1: Articulate various components and functionalities in data communication

system.
CO2: Demonstrate the functionalities of the data link layer, including framing,
addressing, error detection and correction, flow control mechanisms.
CO3: Design appropriate IP addresses for different sized networks based on
addressing schemes and use appropriate routing protocols.
CO4: Illustrate the usage of transport layer protocol in transmission of data
packets in computer networks.
CO5: Demonstrate various application layer protocols to solve challenges in
real world scenario.

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 ASSESSMENT PLAN

1. In Semester Assessment – 50%

•Midsem ( Max. Marks: 30)

•Assignment/Quiz/Seminar: 4 assignments.

2. End Semester Examination – 50%

•Written examination of 3 hours duration. ( Max. Marks: 50)

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What is Data communication?

It is the physical transfer of data over a point to point or point to multipoint

communication channel.

Data communications deals with the transmission of signals in a reliable and

efficient manner

Networking deals with the technology and architecture of the communications

networks used to interconnect communicating devices.

Three different forces have consistently driven the architecture and evolution of
data communications and networking facilities:

 Traffic growth
 Development of new services
 Advances in technology.

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1.2 A COMMUNICATIONS MODEL

• Fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data

between two parties.

• simple model of communications

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• Exchange of voice signals between two telephones over the same network.

• Communication between a workstation and a server over a public telephone

network.

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Source.  Generates the data to be transmitted;
 Examples : telephones and personal computers.
Transmitter:
Data generated by a source are not transmitted directly in the form in which they were generated.

Transmitter transforms the information to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted
across some sort of transmission system.

Modem takes a digital bit stream and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be
handled by the telephone network.

Transmission system:
This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and
destination.

Receiver:
 Receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a form
that can be handled by the destination device.

 Example : Modem accept an analog signal from transmission line and convert it into a
digital bit stream.

Destination: Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

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 Communication Tasks

Table 1.1 Communications Tasks

items on the list could be merged;

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 Transmission system utilization

• Need to make efficient use of transmission facilities that are typically shared among a
number of communicating devices.

• Various techniques (multiplexing) are used.

• To communicate, a device must interface with the transmission system.

• Once an interface is established, signal generation is required for communication.

• There must be some form of synchronization between transmitter and receiver.

–Receiver must be able to determine when a signal begins to arrive and when it ends.
–It must also know the duration of each signal element

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• Variety of requirements for communication between two parties that might be collected
under the term exchange management.

• If data are to be exchanged in both directions over a period of time, the two parties must
cooperate.

Telephone conversation

• One party must dial the number, causing signals to be generated that result in the
ringing of the called phone. Other party completes a connection by lifting the receiver.

• For data processing devices, more will be needed than simply establishing a
connection. i.e certain conventions must be decided on.

• These conventions may include :

– whether both devices may transmit simultaneously or must take turns,
– the amount of data to be sent at one time,
– the format of the data, and
– what to do if certain contingencies such as an error arise.

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• Two more items must be included under exchange management:
– Error detection and correction
– Flow control.

addressing and routing.

When more than two devices share a transmission facility, a source system must indicate
the identity of the intended destination.

A specific route through this network must be chosen.

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 Recovery is a concept distinct from that of error correction.

Needed in situations, such as a database transaction or file transfer, is interrupted due to

a fault somewhere in the system.

The objective is either to be able to resume activity at the point of interruption or at least
to restore the state of the systems.

• Message formatting : agreement between two parties as to the form of the

data to be exchanged or transmitted.

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 It is important to provide some measure of security in a data communications system.

The sender of data may wish to be assured that only the intended receiver actually
receives the data.

The receiver of data may wish to be assured that the received data have not been
altered in transit and that the data actually come from the purported sender.

• Data communications facility is a complex system that cannot create or run itself.

• Network management capabilities are needed to configure the system, monitor its
status, react to failures and overloads, and plan intelligently for future growth.

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 A Data Communications Model
• The user of the PC wishes to send a message m (E-mail) to another user.
• The input device and transmitter are components of a personal computer.

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A Data Communications Model
• User entered message can be viewed as a sequence of bits (g) in memory.

• Input data are transferred to the transmitter as a sequence of voltage shifts [g(t)]
representing bits on some communications bus or cable.

• The transmitter is connected directly to the medium and converts the incoming stream
[g(t)] into a signal [s(t)] suitable for transmission.

• Transmitted signal s(t) in the medium is subject to a number of impairments.

• Thus, the received signal r(t) may differ from s(t).

• Receiver will attempt to estimate the original s(t), based on r(t) and its knowledge of the
medium, producing a sequence of bits g1(t)

• These bits are sent to the output personal computer, where they are briefly buffered in
memory as a block of bits (g1)

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 Transmission modes: Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex

Transmission mode defines the direction of flow of signal between two connected
devices.

Simplex
• Communication between sender and receiver occurs only in one direction.
• Ex Television broadcasting

Half Duplex
• Communication between sender and receiver occurs in both the directions but, one at a time.
• Ex: Walkie-Talkies

Full Duplex
• The communication between sender and receiver can occur simultaneously.
• For example, in a telephone, two people communicate.

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Analog and Digital Data

• Data can be analog or digital.

• Analog data have continuous values over a time.

 sound made by a human voice.
 When someone speaks, an analog wave is created in the air.
 Captured by a microphone.

• Digital data takes discrete value.

 data are stored in computer memory in the form of Os and 1s

• Data is an entity that conveys some meaning based on some mutually agreed up
rules/conventions between a sender and a receiver.

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Analog and Digital Signals

• Signal : is a electric, electromagnetic or optical representation of data which can

be sent over a communication media.

• Signals can be either analog or digital.

• Analog signal : signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time.

• Digital signal : signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then abruptly
changes to another constant level.

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Periodic and Nonperiodic Signals

• Both analog and digital signals can take one of two forms: periodic or nonperiodic
(aperiodic).

• Periodic signal: completes a pattern within a measurable time frame, called a

period, and repeats that pattern over subsequent identical periods.

• Completion of one full pattern is called a cycle.

• Nonperiodic signal: changes without exhibiting a pattern or cycle that repeats

over time.

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

• Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.

• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be decomposed

into simpler signals.

• A composite periodic analog signal is composed of multiple sine

waves.

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS

Sine Wave

• Is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal.

• A sine wave can be represented by three parameters: the peak amplitude,

the frequency, and the phase.

Figure 3.2 A sine wave

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave : Peak Amplitude
• The peak amplitude of a signal is the absolute value of its highest intensity,
proportional to the energy it carries.

Figure 3.3Two signals with the same phase and frequency, but different amplitudes

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave : Period and Frequency

• Period refers to the amount of time ( in seconds ) a signal needs to complete

1 cycle.

• Frequency refers to the number of periods in I s.

• period and frequency are just one characteristic defined in two ways.

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave : Period and Frequency

Figure : Two signals with the same amplitude and phase, but different frequencies
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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave : Period and Frequency

• Period is formally expressed in seconds.

• Frequency is formally expressed in Hertz (Hz), which is cycle per second.

Table 3.1 Units of period and frequency

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave
Period and Frequency

• The power we use at home has a frequency of 60 Hz.

• The period of this sine wave can be determined as follows:

• Period of the power for our lights at home is 16.6 ms.

• Our eyes are not sensitive enough to distinguish these rapid changes in
amplitude.

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave
Period and Frequency

• Frequency is the rate of change with respect to time.

• Change in a short span of time means high frequency.

• Change over a long span of time means low frequency.

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave
Phase

• The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time O.

• It indicates the status of the first cycle.

• If we think of the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward

along the time axis, phase describes the amount of that shift.

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave
Phase

• Phase is measured in degrees or radians.

• A phase shift of 360° corresponds to a shift of a complete period;

• a phase shift of 180° corresponds to a shift of one-half of a period;

• and a phase shift of 90° corresponds to a shift of one-quarter of a period.

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave
Phase

Figure 3.5 Three sine waves with the same amplitude and frequency, but different phases

 A sine wave with a phase of 0° is not shifted.

 A sine wave with a phase of 90° is shifted to the left by 1/4 cycle.

 A sine wave with a phase of 180° is shifted to the left by 1/2 cycle

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PERIODIC ANALOG SIGNALS
Sine Wave
Phase

A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time O. What is its phase in
degrees and radians?

Solution

We know that 1 complete cycle is 360°. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is

1/6 * 360 = 60 = 60 * rad = rad = 1.046 rad.

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Time and Frequency Domains

• A sine wave is comprehensively defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase.

• The time-domain plot shows changes in signal amplitude with respect to time
(amplitude-versus-time plot).

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Time and Frequency Domains

• Frequency domain plot conveys the information that one can find in a
time domain plot.

• The advantage of the frequency domain is that we can immediately see

the values of the frequency and peak amplitude.

• The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing
with more than one sine wave.

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Time and Frequency Domains

• Figure shows three sine waves, each with different amplitude and frequency.

• All can be represented by three spikes in the frequency domain..

Figure 3.8 The time domain and frequency domain of three sine waves
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Composite Signals

• A single a frequency sine wave is not useful in data communications;

• We need to send a composite signal to communicate data.

• A composite signal is made of many simple sine waves.

• In the early 1900s, the French mathematician Jean-Baptiste Fourier

showed that any composite signal is actually a combination of simple
sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases.

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Composite Signals

• A composite signal can be periodic or nonperiodic.

• If the composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals

with discrete frequencies ((1, 2, 3, and so on).

• if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the decomposition gives a combination

of sine waves with continuous frequencies.

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Composite Signals
• Figure shows a periodic composite signal with frequency f.

• This type of signal is not typical of those found in data communications.

• We can consider it to be three alarm systems, each with a different frequency.

Figure 3.9 A composite periodic signal

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 Composite Signals
• It is difficult to manually decompose signal into a series of simple sine waves.

• There are tools, both hardware and software, that can help us do the job.

Figure 3.10 Decomposition of a composite periodic signal in the time and frequency domains

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 Composite Signals

• The amplitude of the sine wave with frequency f is almost the same as the peak
amplitude of the composite signal.

• The amplitude of the sine wave with frequency 3f is one-third of that of the first,
and the amplitude of the sine wave with frequency 9f is one-ninth of the first.

• The frequency of the sine wave with frequency f is the same as the frequency of
the composite signal; it is called the fundamental frequency, or first harmonic.

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 Composite Signals
• The sine wave with frequency 3f has a frequency of 3 times the fundamental
frequency; it is called the third harmonic.

• The third sine wave with frequency 9fhas a frequency of 9 times the fundamental
frequency; it is called the ninth harmonic.

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Draw the time domain representation of the signal with following
parameters.

1) f=3 A=5 =0

2) f=6 A=3 =0

3) F=12 A=2 =0

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Draw the frequency domain representation of the signal with following
parameters.

1) f=3 A=5 =0

2) f=6 A=3 =0

3) F=12 A=2 =0

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Periodic analog signal characterized by 3 parameters.

Representation of sine wave

s (t ) = A sin (2πft + φ)

Where A is peak amplitude.

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UNITS of Parameter

Amplitude : volts, milli (10-3) volt, KV(103)

Frequency : Hz, KHz(103), MHz(106), GHz(109), THz(1012)

Time : second, milli second(10-3), micro second(10-6), ns(10-9), ps(10-12)

Phase : degree , radian

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Composite signals can be expressed as a combination of simple sine waves with
different amplitude, frequency and phase.

s (t ) = A1 sin (2πf1t + φ1) + A2 sin (2πf2t + φ2) + A3 sin (2πf3t + φ3) +……..

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s (t ) = A1 sin (2πf1t + φ1) + A2 sin (2πf2t + φ2) +……..

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.
 Composite Signals
• Figure shows a nonperiodic composite signal.

• signal created by a microphone or a telephone.

• In a time-domain representation of this composite signal, there are an infinite number of

simple sine frequencies.

• Although the number of frequencies in a human voice is infinite, the range is limited.

• A normal human being can create a continuous range of frequencies between 0 and 4 kHz.

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 Frequency Domain Concepts

• The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains.

• The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum.

• Many signals have an infinite bandwidth.

• However, most of the energy in the signal is contained in a relatively narrow

band of frequencies.

• This band is referred to as the effective bandwidth, or just bandwidth.

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 Bandwidth

• The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the

highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

• For example, if a composite signal contains frequencies between 1000

and 5000, its bandwidth is 5000 - 1000, or 4000.

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 Bandwidth

• The figure depicts periodic composite signals.

• The bandwidth of the periodic signal contains all integer frequencies

between 1000 and 5000 (1000, 100 I, 1002, ...).

Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of periodic composite signals

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 Bandwidth

• The figure depicts nonperiodic composite signals.

• The bandwidth of the nonperiodic signals has the same range, but the
frequencies are continuous.

Figure 3.12 The bandwidth of nonperiodic composite signals

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Bandwidth

• If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of

100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth?

• Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of

10 V.

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 Bandwidth

• If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of

100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth?

• Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of

10 V.

Solution

• Let fh be the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the bandwidth.

• Then B =fh - it = 900 - 100 =800 Hz

• The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz.

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 Bandwidth

• If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of

100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth?

• Draw the spectrum, assuming all components have a maximum amplitude of

10 V.

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 Bandwidth
Example 3.12
• A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle
frequency of140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V.
• The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0.
• Draw the frequency domain of the signal..

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 Bandwidth
Example 3.12
• A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a middle
frequency of140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V.
• The two extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0.
• Draw the frequency domain of the signal..

Solution
• The lowest frequency must be at 40 kHz and the highest at 240 kHz.
• Figure 3.15 shows the frequency domain and the bandwidth.

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The periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is
60Hz what is the lowest frequency.

Draw the spectrum of the signal which contain all frequencies of same
amplitude.

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The periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is
60Hz what is the lowest frequency.

Draw the spectrum of the signal which contain all frequencies of same
amplitude.

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.
• The frequency components of the square wave with amplitudes A and can be
expressed as follows:

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Digital signal

Based on Fourier analysis, a digital signal is a composite analog signal.

A digital signal can be considered as a signal with an infinite number of

frequencies.

Fourier analysis can be used to decompose a digital signal.

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Digital signal
Most digital signals are nonperiodic, and thus period and frequency
are not appropriate characteristics.

Bit interval

• Time required to send a single bit.

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Digital signal

Bit Rate

• Term bit rate (instead of frequency)-is used to describe digital

signals.

• Number of bits sent in 1 second, expressed in bits per second (bps).

• Number of bit intervals per second.

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Digital signal

A digital signal can have more than two levels.

In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

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 Digital signal

We send 1 bit per level in part a of the figure and 2 bits per level in part b of the figure.
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 DIGITAL SIGNALS

• In general, if a signal has L levels, each level needs log 2L bits.

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DIGITAL SIGNALS

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per
level?

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DIGITAL SIGNALS

A digital signal has eight levels. How many bits are needed per level?

Number of bits per level =log2 8 =3

Each signal level is represented by 3 bits.

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Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth

What data rate can be achieved? We look at three cases.

Case I. Let us approximate our square wave with the waveform of Figure 3.7a.
Although this waveform is a “distorted” square wave, it is sufficiently close to the
square wave that a receiver should be able to discriminate between a binary 0
and a binary 1. the signal

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Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth

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Wavelength

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 Digital Data, Digital Signals

A digital signal is a sequence of discrete, discontinuous

voltage pulses.

Each pulse is a signal element.

Binary data are transmitted by encoding each data bit into

signal elements.

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Line Coding

The process for converting digital data into digital signal.

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Signal level and Data level

signal level : Number of values allowed in a particular signal. (voltage level)

Data level : Number of values to represent data.

For binary two values 0 and 1.

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Pulse rate and bit rate

Pulse rate : number of pulses per second.

Bit rate : number of bits per second.

If one pulse corresponds to one bit then pulse rate equal to bit rate.

If the pulse carries more than 1 bit, then pulse rate is lower than bit
rate.

bit rate = pulse rate X log2 L

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Line Coding
• There are three types of line coding schemes available:

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Uni Polar

All the signal levels are on one side of the time axis, either above or below.

Uses single voltage level to represent data.

In this case,
• To represent binary 1 high voltage is transmitted
• To represent 0 no voltage is transmitted.

Also called Unipolar-Non-return-to-zero, because there’s no rest condition

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Polar

In polar schemes, the voltages are on both sides of the time axis.

Polar encodings are available in four types:

• Polar-NRZ ( Non Return to Zero)

• Polar-RZ (Return to Zero)

• Manchester

• Differential Manchester.

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BiPolar

Bipolar encoding uses three levels.

ie positive, zero and negative.

Zero level represent binary ‘0’ and alternating positive and negative
voltage represents binary ‘1’.

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POLAR-NRZ (NON-RETURN TO ZERO)

• It uses 2 different voltage levels – one positive and other is negative.

• Voltage level is constant during bit interval.

• NRZ scheme has two variants:

NRZ- L
NRZ - I

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NRZ-L

NRZ-L changes voltage level at when a different bit is encountered

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NRZ - I

NRZ-I changes voltage when a 1 is encountered.

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POLAR-RZ (RETURN TO ZERO)

• Synchronization is the major concern in previous techniques (NRZ)

• To overcome that we can use RZ encoding

• Here to ensure synchronization, there must be signal transition in each bit

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MANCHESTER (Biphase) ENCODING

• In the Manchester code, there is a transition at the middle of each bit period.

• low-to-high transition represents a 1

• high-to-low transition represents a 0

Limitation: number of transition is more for consecutive zeros and consecutive ones.

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DIFFERENTIAL MANCHESTER ENCODING

• There is always a transition at the middle of the bit, but the bit values are
determined at the beginning of the bit.
• If the next bit is 0, there is a transition.
• If the next bit is 1, there is none.

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Bipolar

Bipolar AMI (Amplitude Mark Inversion)

• Bipolar AMI uses 3 voltage levels.

• The zero level is used to represent 0.
• Binary 1’s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltage.
• Loss of synchronization for long sequence of 0’s

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Bipolar

Bipolar AMI (Amplitude Mark Inversion)

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Bipolar

Pseudoternary

• Same as AMI, but alternating positive and negative pulses occur for 0
instead of 1.

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For the 11 bit binary string 01001100011 find the number of transitions for the
following encoding schemes.

NRZ-L
NRZI
Bipolar-AMI
Pseudoternary
Manchester
Differential Manchester

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For the 11 bit binary string 01001100011 find the number of transitions for the
following encoding schemes.

NRZ-L 5
NRZI 5
Bipolar-AMI 7
Pseudoternary 8
Manchester 16
Differential Manchester 16

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 Tutorial 1

For the given binary string 1110100110001 draw the line coding schemes

Unipolar
NRZ-L
NRZI
Polar RZ
Manchester