Contents

PART 1 C++ BASICS ................................................................................................................................. 2

C++ Overview....................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 2
Object-Oriented Programming ........................................................................................................ 2
Standard Libraries............................................................................................................................ 2
The ANSI Standard ........................................................................................................................... 3
Learning C++ .................................................................................................................................... 3
Use of C++........................................................................................................................................ 3
C++ Environment Setup ....................................................................................................................... 4
Local Environment Setup................................................................................................................. 4
Installing GNU C/C++ Compiler ....................................................................................................... 4
C++ Basic Syntax, Data Types, C++ Variable Types, ............................................................................. 6
C++ Program Structure .................................................................................................................... 6
Compile and Execute C++ Program ................................................................................................. 7
Semicolons and Blocks in C++.......................................................................................................... 7
C++ Identifiers ................................................................................................................................. 8
C++ Keywords .................................................................................................................................. 8
Trigraphs .......................................................................................................................................... 9
C++ Data Types .............................................................................................................................. 10
C++ Variable Types ........................................................................................................................ 14
Variable Scope in C++ .................................................................................................................... 19
Initializing Local and Global Variables ........................................................................................... 21
Constants ....................................................................................................................................... 21
Defining Constants ........................................................................................................................ 21
The #define Preprocessor.............................................................................................................. 22
The const Keyword ........................................................................................................................ 22

University of Bamenda Page 1

PART 1 C++ BASICS
C++ Overview
Introduction
C++ is a statically typed, compiled, general-purpose, case-sensitive,
free-form programming language that supports procedural, object-
oriented, and generic programming.

C++ is regarded as a middle-level language, as it comprises a

combination of both high-level and low-level language features.

C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup starting in 1979 at Bell Labs in

Murray Hill, New Jersey, as an enhancement to the C language and
originally named C with Classes but later it was renamed C++ in 1983.

C++ is a superset of C, and that virtually any legal C program is a legal

C++ program.

Note − A programming language is said to use static typing when type

checking is performed during compile-time as opposed to run-time.
Object-Oriented Programming
C++ fully supports object-oriented programming, including the four
pillars of object-oriented development −

 Encapsulation

 Data hiding

 Inheritance

 Polymorphism

Standard Libraries
Standard C++ consists of three important parts −

 The core language giving all the building blocks including variables, data
types and literals, etc.

 The C++ Standard Library giving a rich set of functions manipulating files,
strings, etc.

 The Standard Template Library (STL) giving a rich set of methods

manipulating data structures, etc.

University of Bamenda Page 2

The ANSI Standard
The ANSI standard is an attempt to ensure that C++ is portable; that
code you write for Microsoft's compiler will compile without errors, using
a compiler on a Mac, UNIX, a Windows box, or an Alpha.

The ANSI standard has been stable for a while, and all the major C++
compiler manufacturers support the ANSI standard.
Learning C++
The most important thing while learning C++ is to focus on concepts.

The purpose of learning a programming language is to become a better

programmer; that is, to become more effective at designing and
implementing new systems and at maintaining old ones.

C++ supports a variety of programming styles. You can write in the style
of Fortran, C, Smalltalk, etc., in any language. Each style can achieve its
aims effectively while maintaining runtime and space efficiency.
Use of C++
C++ is used by hundreds of thousands of programmers in essentially
every application domain.

C++ is being highly used to write device drivers and other software that
rely on direct manipulation of hardware under realtime constraints.

C++ is widely used for teaching and research because it is clean enough
for successful teaching of basic concepts.

Anyone who has used either an Apple Macintosh or a PC running Windows

has indirectly used C++ because the primary user interfaces of these
systems are written in C++.

University of Bamenda Page 3

 CHAPTER 2
C++ Environment Setup
Introduction
Local Environment Setup
If you are still willing to set up your environment for C++, you need to
have the following two softwares on your computer.
Text Editor
This will be used to type your program. Examples of few editors include
Windows Notepad, OS Edit command, Brief, Epsilon, EMACS, and vim or
vi.

Name and version of text editor can vary on different operating systems.
For example, Notepad will be used on Windows and vim or vi can be used
on windows as well as Linux, or UNIX.

The files you create with your editor are called source files and for C++
they typically are named with the extension .cpp, .cp, or .c.

A text editor should be in place to start your C++ programming.

C++ Compiler
This is an actual C++ compiler, which will be used to compile your source
code into final executable program.

Most C++ compilers don't care what extension you give to your source
code, but if you don't specify otherwise, many will use .cpp by default.

Most frequently used and free available compiler is GNU C/C++ compiler,
otherwise you can have compilers either from HP or Solaris if you have
the respective Operating Systems.
Installing GNU C/C++ Compiler

UNIX/Linux Installation
If you are using Linux or UNIX then check whether GCC is installed on
your system by entering the following command from the command line
−
$ g++ -v

If you have installed GCC, then it should print a message such as the
following −

University of Bamenda Page 4

Using built-in specs.
Target: i386-redhat-linux
Configured with: ../configure --prefix=/usr .......
Thread model: posix
gcc version 4.1.2 20080704 (Red Hat 4.1.2-46)

If GCC is not installed, then you will have to install it yourself using the
detailed instructions available at https://gcc.gnu.org/install/
Mac OS X Installation
If you use Mac OS X, the easiest way to obtain GCC is to download the
Xcode development environment from Apple's website and follow the
simple installation instructions.

Xcode is currently available at developer.apple.com/technologies/tools/.

Windows Installation
To install GCC at Windows you need to install MinGW. To install MinGW,
go to the MinGW homepage, www.mingw.org, and follow the link to the
MinGW download page. Download the latest version of the MinGW
installation program which should be named MinGW-<version>.exe.

While installing MinGW, at a minimum, you must install gcc-core, gcc-

g++, binutils, and the MinGW runtime, but you may wish to install more.

Add the bin subdirectory of your MinGW installation to your PATH

environment variable so that you can specify these tools on the command
line by their simple names.

When the installation is complete, you will be able to run gcc, g++, ar,
ranlib, dlltool, and several other GNU tools from the Windows command
line.

University of Bamenda Page 5

 CHAPTER 3
C++ Basic Syntax, Data Types, C++ Variable Types,
Introduction
When we consider a C++ program, it can be defined as a collection of
objects that communicate via invoking each other's methods. Let us now
briefly look into what a class, object, methods, and instant variables
mean.

 Object − Objects have states and behaviors. Example: A dog has states -
color, name, breed as well as behaviors - wagging, barking, eating. An object
is an instance of a class.

 Class − A class can be defined as a template/blueprint that describes the

behaviors/states that object of its type support.

 Methods − A method is basically a behavior. A class can contain many

methods. It is in methods where the logics are written, data is manipulated
and all the actions are executed.

 Instance Variables − Each object has its unique set of instance variables.
An object's state is created by the values assigned to these instance
variables.

C++ Program Structure

Let us look at a simple code that would print the words Hello World.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// main() is where program execution begins.

int main() {

cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World

return 0;

Let us look at the various parts of the above program −

 The C++ language defines several headers, which contain information that is
either necessary or useful to your program. For this program, the
header <iostream> is needed.

University of Bamenda Page 6

  The line using namespace std; tells the compiler to use the std namespace.
Namespaces are a relatively recent addition to C++.

 The next line '// main() is where program execution begins.' is a single-
line comment available in C++. Single-line comments begin with // and stop
at the end of the line.

 The line int main() is the main function where program execution begins.

 The next line cout << "This is my first C++ program."; causes the
message "This is my first C++ program" to be displayed on the screen.

 The next line return 0; terminates main( )function and causes it to return the
value 0 to the calling process.

Compile and Execute C++ Program

Let's look at how to save the file, compile and run the program. Please
follow the steps given below −

 Open a text editor and add the code as above.

 Save the file as: hello.cpp

 Open a command prompt and go to the directory where you saved the file.

 Type 'g++ hello.cpp' and press enter to compile your code. If there are no
errors in your code the command prompt will take you to the next line and
would generate a.out executable file.

 Now, type 'a.out' to run your program.

 You will be able to see ' Hello World ' printed on the window.

$ g++ hello.cpp
$ ./a.out
Hello World

Make sure that g++ is in your path and that you are running it in the
directory containing file hello.cpp.

You can compile C/C++ programs using makefile. For more details, you
can check our 'Makefile Tutorial'.
Semicolons and Blocks in C++
In C++, the semicolon is a statement terminator. That is, each individual
statement must be ended with a semicolon. It indicates the end of one
logical entity.

For example, following are three different statements −

University of Bamenda Page 7

x = y;
y = y + 1;
add(x, y);

A block is a set of logically connected statements that are surrounded by

opening and closing braces. For example −
{
cout << "Hello World"; // prints Hello World
return 0;
}

C++ does not recognize the end of the line as a terminator. For this
reason, it does not matter where you put a statement in a line. For
example −
x = y;
y = y + 1;
add(x, y);

is the same as
x = y; y = y + 1; add(x, y);

C++ Identifiers
A C++ identifier is a name used to identify a variable, function, class,
module, or any other user-defined item. An identifier starts with a letter
A to Z or a to z or an underscore (_) followed by zero or more letters,
underscores, and digits (0 to 9).

C++ does not allow punctuation characters such as @, $, and % within

identifiers. C++ is a case-sensitive programming language.
Thus, Manpowerand manpower are two different identifiers in C++.

Here are some examples of acceptable identifiers −

mohd zara abc move_name a_123
myname50 _temp j a23b9 retVal

C++ Keywords
The following list shows the reserved words in C++. These reserved
words may not be used as constant or variable or any other identifier
names.

asm else new this

auto enum operator throw

University of Bamenda Page 8

 bool explicit private true

break export protected try

case extern public typedef

catch false register typeid

char float reinterpret_cast typename

class for return union

const friend short unsigned

const_cast goto signed using

continue if sizeof virtual

default inline static void

delete int static_cast volatile

do long struct wchar_t

double mutable switch while

dynamic_cast namespace template

Trigraphs
A few characters have an alternative representation, called a trigraph
sequence. A trigraph is a three-character sequence that represents a
single character and the sequence always starts with two question marks.

University of Bamenda Page 9

Trigraphs are expanded anywhere they appear, including within string
literals and character literals, in comments, and in preprocessor
directives.

Following are most frequently used trigraph sequences −

Trigraph Replacement

??= #

??/ \

??' ^

??( [

??) ]

??! |

??< {

??> }

??- ~

All the compilers do not support trigraphs and they are not advised to be
used because of their confusing nature.
C++ Data Types
While writing program in any language, you need to use various variables
to store various information. Variables are nothing but reserved memory
locations to store values. This means that when you create a variable you
reserve some space in memory.

You may like to store information of various data types like character,
wide character, integer, floating point, double floating point, boolean etc.

University of Bamenda Page 10

Based on the data type of a variable, the operating system allocates
memory and decides what can be stored in the reserved memory.
Primitive Built-in Types
C++ offers the programmer a rich assortment of built-in as well as user
defined data types. Following table lists down seven basic C++ data
types −

Type Keyword

Boolean bool

Character char

Integer int

Floating point float

Double floating point double

Valueless void

Wide character wchar_t

Several of the basic types can be modified using one or more of these
type modifiers −

 signed

 unsigned

 short

 long

The following table shows the variable type, how much memory it takes
to store the value in memory, and what is maximum and minimum value
which can be stored in such type of variables.

University of Bamenda Page 11

 Type Typical Bit Width Typical Range

char 1byte -127 to 127 or 0 to 255

unsigned char 1byte 0 to 255

signed char 1byte -127 to 127

int 4bytes -2147483648 to 2147483647

unsigned int 4bytes 0 to 4294967295

signed int 4bytes -2147483648 to 2147483647

short int 2bytes -32768 to 32767

unsigned short int Range 0 to 65,535

signed short int Range -32768 to 32767

long int 4bytes -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

signed long int 4bytes same as long int

unsigned long int 4bytes 0 to 4,294,967,295

float 4bytes +/- 3.4e +/- 38 (~7 digits)

double 8bytes +/- 1.7e +/- 308 (~15 digits)

long double 8bytes +/- 1.7e +/- 308 (~15 digits)

University of Bamenda Page 12

 wchar_t 2 or 4 bytes 1 wide character

The size of variables might be different from those shown in the above
table, depending on the compiler and the computer you are using.

Following is the example, which will produce correct size of various data
types on your computer.

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

cout << "Size of char : " << sizeof(char) << endl;

cout << "Size of int : " << sizeof(int) << endl;

cout << "Size of short int : " << sizeof(short int) << endl;

cout << "Size of long int : " << sizeof(long int) << endl;

cout << "Size of float : " << sizeof(float) << endl;

cout << "Size of double : " << sizeof(double) << endl;

cout << "Size of wchar_t : " << sizeof(wchar_t) << endl;

return 0;

This example uses endl, which inserts a new-line character after every
line and << operator is being used to pass multiple values out to the
screen. We are also using sizeof() operator to get size of various data
types.

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result which can vary from machine to machine −
Size of char : 1
Size of int : 4
Size of short int : 2
Size of long int : 4
Size of float : 4
Size of double : 8
Size of wchar_t : 4

University of Bamenda Page 13

typedef Declarations
You can create a new name for an existing type using typedef. Following
is the simple syntax to define a new type using typedef −
typedef type newname;

For example, the following tells the compiler that feet is another name for
int −
typedef int feet;

Now, the following declaration is perfectly legal and creates an integer

variable called distance −
feet distance;

Enumerated Types
An enumerated type declares an optional type name and a set of zero or
more identifiers that can be used as values of the type. Each enumerator
is a constant whose type is the enumeration.

Creating an enumeration requires the use of the keyword enum. The

general form of an enumeration type is −
enum enum-name { list of names } var-list;

Here, the enum-name is the enumeration's type name. The list of names
is comma separated.

For example, the following code defines an enumeration of colors called

colors and the variable c of type color. Finally, c is assigned the value
"blue".
enum color { red, green, blue } c;
c = blue;

By default, the value of the first name is 0, the second name has the
value 1, and the third has the value 2, and so on. But you can give a
name, a specific value by adding an initializer. For example, in the
following enumeration, green will have the value 5.
enum color { red, green = 5, blue };

Here, blue will have a value of 6 because each name will be one greater
than the one that precedes it.
C++ Variable Types
A variable provides us with named storage that our programs can
manipulate. Each variable in C++ has a specific type, which determines

University of Bamenda Page 14

the size and layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that
can be stored within that memory; and the set of operations that can be
applied to the variable.

The name of a variable can be composed of letters, digits, and the

underscore character. It must begin with either a letter or an underscore.
Upper and lowercase letters are distinct because C++ is case-sensitive −

There are following basic types of variable in C++ as explained in last

chapter −

Sr.No Type & Description

1 bool

Stores either value true or false.

2 char

Typically a single octet (one byte). This is an integer type.

3 int

The most natural size of integer for the machine.

4 float

A single-precision floating point value.

5 double

A double-precision floating point value.

6 void

Represents the absence of type.

7 wchar_t

A wide character type.

University of Bamenda Page 15

C++ also allows to define various other types of variables, which we will
cover in subsequent chapters like Enumeration, Pointer, Array,
Reference, Data structures, and Classes.

Following section will cover how to define, declare and use various types
of variables.
Variable Definition in C++
A variable definition tells the compiler where and how much storage to
create for the variable. A variable definition specifies a data type, and
contains a list of one or more variables of that type as follows −
type variable_list;

Here, type must be a valid C++ data type including char, w_char, int,
float, double, bool or any user-defined object, etc.,
and variable_list may consist of one or more identifier names separated
by commas. Some valid declarations are shown here −
int i, j, k;
char c, ch;
float f, salary;
double d;

The line int i, j, k; both declares and defines the variables i, j and k;
which instructs the compiler to create variables named i, j and k of type
int.

Variables can be initialized (assigned an initial value) in their declaration.

The initializer consists of an equal sign followed by a constant expression
as follows −
type variable_name = value;

Some examples are −

extern int d = 3, f = 5; // declaration of d and f.
int d = 3, f = 5; // definition and initializing d and f.
byte z = 22; // definition and initializes z.
char x = 'x'; // the variable x has the value 'x'.

For definition without an initializer: variables with static storage duration

are implicitly initialized with NULL (all bytes have the value 0); the initial
value of all other variables is undefined.
Variable Declaration in C++
A variable declaration provides assurance to the compiler that there is
one variable existing with the given type and name so that compiler
proceed for further compilation without needing complete detail about the

University of Bamenda Page 16

variable. A variable declaration has its meaning at the time of compilation
only, compiler needs actual variable definition at the time of linking of the
program.

A variable declaration is useful when you are using multiple files and you
define your variable in one of the files which will be available at the time
of linking of the program. You will use extern keyword to declare a
variable at any place. Though you can declare a variable multiple times in
your C++ program, but it can be defined only once in a file, a function or
a block of code.
Example
Try the following example where a variable has been declared at the top,
but it has been defined inside the main function −

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Variable declaration:

extern int a, b;

extern int c;

extern float f;

int main () {

// Variable definition:

int a, b;

int c;

float f;

// actual initialization

a = 10;

b = 20;

c = a + b;

cout << c << endl ;

University of Bamenda Page 17

 f = 70.0/3.0;

cout << f << endl ;

return 0;

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
30
23.3333

Same concept applies on function declaration where you provide a

function name at the time of its declaration and its actual definition can
be given anywhere else. For example −
// function declaration
int func();
int main() {
// function call
int i = func();
}

// function definition
int func() {
return 0;
}

Lvalues and Rvalues

There are two kinds of expressions in C++ −

 lvalue − Expressions that refer to a memory location is called "lvalue"

expression. An lvalue may appear as either the left-hand or right-hand side
of an assignment.

 rvalue − The term rvalue refers to a data value that is stored at some
address in memory. An rvalue is an expression that cannot have a value
assigned to it which means an rvalue may appear on the right- but not left-
hand side of an assignment.

Variables are lvalues and so may appear on the left-hand side of an

assignment. Numeric literals are rvalues and so may not be assigned and
can not appear on the left-hand side. Following is a valid statement −
int g = 20;

University of Bamenda Page 18

But the following is not a valid statement and would generate compile-
time error −
10 = 20;

Variable Scope in C++

A scope is a region of the program and broadly speaking there are three
places, where variables can be declared −

 Inside a function or a block which is called local variables,

 In the definition of function parameters which is called formal parameters.

 Outside of all functions which is called global variables.

We will learn what a function is and it's parameter in subsequent

chapters. Here let us explain what local and global variables are.
Local Variables
Variables that are declared inside a function or block are local variables.
They can be used only by statements that are inside that function or
block of code. Local variables are not known to functions outside their
own. Following is the example using local variables −

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main () {

// Local variable declaration:

int a, b;

int c;

// actual initialization

a = 10;

b = 20;

c = a + b;

cout << c;

University of Bamenda Page 19

 return 0;

Global Variables
Global variables are defined outside of all the functions, usually on top of
the program. The global variables will hold their value throughout the
life-time of your program.

A global variable can be accessed by any function. That is, a global

variable is available for use throughout your entire program after its
declaration. Following is the example using global and local variables −

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

// Global variable declaration:

int g;

int main () {

// Local variable declaration:

int a, b;

// actual initialization

a = 10;

b = 20;

g = a + b;

cout << g;

return 0;

A program can have same name for local and global variables but value
of local variable inside a function will take preference. For example −

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

University of Bamenda Page 20

 // Global variable declaration:

int g = 20;

int main () {

// Local variable declaration:

int g = 10;

cout << g;

return 0;

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
10

Initializing Local and Global Variables

When a local variable is defined, it is not initialized by the system, you
must initialize it yourself. Global variables are initialized automatically by
the system when you define them as follows −

Data Type Initializer

int 0

char '\0'

float 0

double 0

pointer NULL

It is a good programming practice to initialize variables properly,

otherwise sometimes program would produce unexpected result.
Constants

Defining Constants
There are two simple ways in C++ to define constants −
University of Bamenda Page 21
  Using #define preprocessor.

 Using const keyword.

The #define Preprocessor

Following is the form to use #define preprocessor to define a constant −
#define identifier value

Following example explains it in detail −

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

#define LENGTH 10

#define WIDTH 5

#define NEWLINE '\n'

int main() {

int area;

area = LENGTH * WIDTH;

cout << area;

cout << NEWLINE;

return 0;

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
50

The const Keyword

You can use const prefix to declare constants with a specific type as
follows −
const type variable = value;

Following example explains it in detail −

#include <iostream>

University of Bamenda Page 22

using namespace std;

int main() {

const int LENGTH = 10;

const int WIDTH = 5;

const char NEWLINE = '\n';

int area;

area = LENGTH * WIDTH;

cout << area;

cout << NEWLINE;

return 0;

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following
result −
50

Note that it is a good programming practice to define constants in

CAPITALS.

University of Bamenda Page 23