Research methods 1
What is science?
- Empirical sciences (physics, biology, geology, psychology)
Based on observation, collection of new data (facts)
- Formal sciences (mathematics, logic, computer science)
Correct reasoning based on data
Sources of knowledge
Scientifically unacceptable knowledge based on:
- Tenacity: uncorrectable beliefs
- Intuition: gut feeling / revelation
- Authority: respected source
You can not use this as the basis of your knowledge or an argument.
Scientifically critical knowledge based on:
- Empiricism: systemic observation
- Rationalism: formally correct reasoning
Scientific knowledge results from a continuous interplay between empirical observation and
rational thinking
History of science
Between 1600 and 1700, scientific revolution.
Plato (427 – 347 BC)
- theory of ideas
- observations must be mistrusted
- new knowledge by reasoning from ideas
not empirical but strong rationalism
Aristotle (384 -322 BC)
- knowledge comes from ideas, but also from observation
- deduction: deduce new knowledge from certain truths. The viability
for an argument is based on former statements. (rationalism)
- Induction: obtain new knowledge from observation. Limitations:
when observing swans, after seeing 1000 white swans u can not say
that all swans are whit; the 1001 may be black. (empiricism)
-
he explained natural phenomena, strong rationalism, but some empiricism was
permissible for him.
Hellenism
Alexander the great (356 – 323 BC) aristotle’s student
Conquered a lot of areas, and he spread the Greek culture in the conquered areas
Alexandria -> new capital of science
Focused on astronomy and geography
Carfeul observations, no explanations
Strong empiricism
Limited rationalism.
Islamic civilization
Golden Age (700 – 1000 A.d.)
Transplanting and enrichment of Athenian and Alexandrian knowledge
Number 0 was created, algebra has Arabic origin.
European medieval period
- Early medieval period: knowledge based on the bible
- Late medieval period rediscovery of Aristotle
Scientific revolution (~1600)
- Strong revaluation of natural philiopshpy (Athens)
- Importance of observation (Alexandria)
- Mathematization of reality (algebra, Arabic)
- Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
o Heliocentric solar system (sun is the middle of the universe)
- Galileo galilei
o Experimentation (systematic manipulation)
o Accurate observations
o Mathematization
o Capturing somting from the real world in a formula
- Johannes kepler ( 1571 – 1630)
o Planets do not orbit in perfect circles but in ellipses
- Principia (1687) by Isaac Newton (1643 – 1727)
o Based on accurate astronomical observations and previous
insights
Athens
- primarlily yheoratical not observayional
Alexandria
- Primarily observayional not theoretical
Modern science
- Theories are tested by observation
- Self correcting: weak theories disappear
Philosophy
- mother of all sciences
- Philosophy continues to study the foundations of sciences
(including ethics). It is a meta-science (“behind science”)
Assumptions of science
An assumption is a statement accepted without proof
Fundamental assumptions
• The existence of a true (material) reality
• Reality is ordered
• The order of reality can be discovered
• The discovered order is never final
Based on our observations (data), we often make inferences
about an invisible world: Constructs.
Examples: gravity, intelligence, neurosis, memory, etc
(something you cannot see but is assumed is there.) you cannot observe intelligence, but you
can test and make an assumption about someone’s intelligence
Constructs are derived from observables. This is usually the process of induction.
Observable is ‘we found’
not observable is ‘we assume’
ex.
Your car doesn’t start, this is an observable. Through the process of induction you think that
the reason for this is an empty battery. This is called a hypothesis. Through the process of
deduction youi state that the lights cannot turn on, this is a test for if the battery is empty or
not.
When the lights do turn on, this is called falsification of the hypothesis. The hypothesis is not
true.
When the lights don’t turn on, this is called verification. This doesn’t mean the hypothesis is
true, but it verifies it and the hypothesis hasn’t been debunked yet.
Hypothesis is a testable explanation of a phenomenon (mini-theory) but not directly
observable.
Theory:
System of logically related constructs, aimed at explaining
phenomena in a certain domain
• Can be conceived as a complex hypothesis
• Internally consistent (no contradictions)
• Must be parsimonious
• From a theory, (partial) hypotheses can be deduced
• Must be falsifiable.....
Parsimony: among competing theories, the simplest theory
should be preferred (Ockham’s razor). Only include necessary things in a theory.
Logical argument:
At the top, there are premises, basically statement which can be true or false.
The n part are propositions that are deduced from the propositions.
1. If at the vu (antecedent) then you are in Amsterdam (consequent)
2. We are at the VU
3. We are in Amsterdam (conclusion)
This is valid, it is a confirmation of the antecendent.
1. If at the vu (antecedent) then you are in Amsterdam (consequent)
2. We are in amsterdam
3. We are at the VU(conclusion)
This is invalid, it is a confirmation of the consequent
1. If at the VU (antecedent) then you are in Amsterdam (consequent)
2. We are not at the VU
3. We are not in Amsterdam (conclusion)
This is invalid, it is 7
1. If at the VU (antecedent) then you are in Amsterdam (consequent)
2. We are not in Amsterdam
3. We are not at the VU (conclusion)
This is valid, it is denial of the consequent
Scientific argument
Valid argument with conculsion H (hypothesis is true) or ~H (hypothesis is not true)
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Characteristics
• Postulation of unfalsifiable ideas
• Claims based on incidental (or biased) observation
• Resistance against scientific research
• Ignore/deny counter evidence
"Develop your hidden psychic powers!"
“Lose weight by hypnosis!"
"Learn French as you sleep!"
Pseudoscience
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