UNIT 1: Understanding the Computer: - Introduction - Evolution of Computers -Generations

1.1
of C o m pu te r s - Classification of Computers - Computing Concepts -The Computer System -
Applications of Computers. Computer Organisation and Architecture: - Introduction - Central
Processing Unit - Internal Communications -Machine Cycle - The Bus - Instruction Set. Memory
and Storage Systems: -Introduction - Memory Representation - Random Access Memory - Read
Only Memory - Storage Systems - Magnetic Storage Systems - Optical Storage Systems - Magneto-
Optical Systems - Solid-state Storage Devices - Storage Evaluation Criteria. Input Devices: -
Introduction - Keyboard - Pointing Devices – Scanning Devices - Optical Recognition Devices -
Digital Camera - Voice Recognition System - Data Acquisition Sensors - Media Input Devices.
Output Devices: -Introduction - Display Monitors - Printers - Impact Printers - Non-impact Printers
- Plotters - Voice Output - Systems - Projectors - Terminals

1.1 Introduction:
• A computer is an electronic machine that takes input from the user, processes the
given input, and generates output in the form of useful information.
• A computer accepts input in different forms such asdata, programs, and user replies.
• Data refer to the raw details that need processing to generate useful information.
• Programs refer to the set ofinstructions that can be executed by the computer in a
sequential or non-sequential manner. User reply is the input provided by the user in
response to a question asked by the computer. The main task of a computer system
is to process the given input of any type in an efficient manner.
A computer includes various devices that function as an integrated system to
perform several tasks described above. These devices are:
• Central Processing Unit (CPU) It is the computer's processor responsible for
controlling and executing instructions in the computer. It is considered the most
significant component of the computer. It is the “brain” of the computer.
• Monitor It is a screen, which displays information in visual form, after receiving
the video signals from the computer.
• Keyboard and Mouse These are the devices used by the computer to receive
input fromthe user.

Fig. 1.1 The components of the computer

The characteristics and capabilities of a modern digital computer include,

amongothers: Speed, Storage Capacity, Accuracy, Reliability, Versatility.
1.2 Evolution of Computers:

Early Developments

• From the beginning, the need for counting, computing, or processing data has been
with man. The most significant early computing tool is the ABACUS, a wooden rack
holding parallel rods on which
beads are strung. This simple device was used for addition and subtraction.
• A significant advance in the evolution of computing systems was the invention of a
mechanical adding machine in 1642 by the French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-
1662).
• In 1671 Leibniz (Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibnix) better one which could also
multiply, divide, and find square roots.
• In 1829, Thomas of Colmar(Charles Xsvier Thomas) produced the first commercially
available mechanical calculator. This desktop calculator could add, subtract, multiply,
and divide. This was followed by a succession of advanced and improved versions of
mechanical calculators.
Charles Babbage in 1822, built an automatic mechanical calculator called the
"difference engine." In 1833 he began to work on a general-purpose, programmable,
automatic mechanical digital computer called the “analytic machine”. He also came
to be known as the father of modern computer.
• A major step forward in the evolution of computer systems is the invention of punch
cards, the calculating automatic machine, first used during the U.S. census of 1890 by
Herman Hollerith and James Powers.
Modern Digital Systems By the late 1930s, several research groups worked hard to
build automatic digital computers.
• In 1942, Eckert(electrical engineer J. Presper) and physicist John W. Mauchly
developed ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator).
• ENIAC went into operation in 1946. It was the first all-purpose, digital electronic
computer. It used vacuum tubes instead of relays as the logic
elements. Because of this, it was more than 1,000 faster than its electromechanical
predecessors. However, ENIAC was of unprecedented size and complexity.
• In 1950, ENIAC was succeeded by EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic
Computer), a stored-program computer.
• In 1947, Eckert and Mauchly established their own company, Eckert-
Mauchly Computer Corporation manufactures computers commercially. 1951 the
company produced the UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer) for the U.S.
Census Bureau. UNIVAC I achieved the greatest fame among the early digital
computers because it was used to
predict correctlythe presidential election in 1952.

1.3 Generations of Computer

Introduction:

• A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data.

• It has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data.
 • Nowadays, a computer can be used to type documents, send emails, play games,
and browse the Web.
• It can also be used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos.
But the evolution of this complex system started around 1940 with the first
Generation of Computers and evolved ever
since.

There are five generations of computers.

1. FIRST GENERATION
• Introduction:
1.1946-1959 is the period of first generation computer.
2. J.P.Eckert and J.W.Mauchy invented the first successful electronic computer called
ENIAC,
ENIAC stands for “Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator”.
• Few Examples are:
1. ENIAC
2. EDVAC
3. UNIVAC
4. IBM-701
5. IBM-650
...
• Advantages:
1. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component available during
those
days.
2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.
• Disadvantages:
1. These were very big in size, weight was about 30 tons.
2. These computers were based on vacuum tubes.
3. These computers were very costly.
4. It could store only a small amount of information due to the presence of magnetic drums.
5. As the invention of first-generation computers involves vacuum tubes, so another
disadvantage of these computers was, vacuum tubes require a large cooling system.
6. Very less work efficiency.
7. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards were used to take inputs.
8. Large amount of energy consumption.
9. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.

2. SECOND GENERATION
• Introduction:
1. 1959-1965 is the period of second-generation computers.
2. 3. Second-generation computers were based on transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
• Few Examples are:
1. Honeywell 400
2. IBM 7094
3. CDC 1604
4. CDC 3600
5. UNIVAC 1108
... many more
• Advantages:
1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum tubes, the size of the electron
component
decreased. This resulted in reducing the size of a computer as compared to the first generation
computers.
2. Less energy and not produce as much heat as the first generation.
3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for input.
4. Low cost than first-generation computers.
5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.
6. Better portability as compared to the first generation
• Disadvantages:
1. A cooling system was required.
2. Constant maintenance was required.
3. Only used for specific purposes.

3. THIRD GENERATION
• Introduction:
1. 1965-1971 is the period of third-generation computers.
2. These computers were based on Integrated circuits.
3. IC was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-1959.
4. IC was a single component containing a number of transistors.
• Few Examples are:
1. PDP-8
2. PDP-11
3. ICL 2900
4. IBM 360
5. IBM 370
... and many more

• Advantages:
1. These computers were cheaper as compared to second-generation computers.
2. They were fast and reliable.
3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the computer.
4. IC not only reduces the size of the computer but it also improves the performance of the
computer as compared to previous computers.
5. This generation of computers has a big storage capacity.
6. Instead of punch cards, a mouse and keyboard are used for input.
7. They used an operating system for better resource management and used the concept of
time-
sharing and multiple programming.
8. These computers reduce the computational time from microseconds to nanoseconds.

• Disadvantages:
1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.
3. Air conditioning is required.

4. FOURTH GENERATION
• Introduction:

1. 1971-1980 is the period of fourth-generation computers.

2. This technology is based on Microprocessor.
3. A microprocessor is used in a computer for any logical and arithmetic function to be
performed in any program.
4. Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was exploited to offer more comfort to users.
• Few Examples are:
1. IBM 4341
2. DEC 10
3. STAR 1000
4. PUP 11
... and many more

• Advantages:
1. Fastest in computation and size gets reduced as compared to the previous generation of
computer.
2. Heat generated is negligible.
3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.
4. Less maintenance is required.
5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computer.

• Disadvantages:
1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.
2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.
3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.

5. FIFTH GENERATION
• Introduction:

1. The period of the fifth generation in 1980-onwards.

2. This generation is based on artificial intelligence.
3. The aim of the fifth generation is to make a device that could respond to natural language
input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
4. This generation is based on ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology resulting in
the
production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components.
• Few Examples are:
1. Desktop
2. Laptop
3. NoteBook
4. UltraBook
5. Chromebook
... and many more

• Advantages:
1. It is more reliable and works faster.
2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.
3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia features.
• Disadvantages:
1. They need very low-level languages.
2. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.

1.4 Classifications of Computers

The computers are classified in to different categories according to their purposes, sizes and
data handling.

The computer comes in a variety of sizes and shapes according to their uses and applications
with varying processing capabilities. In the early days, computer sizes were as large as the
building rooms and the processing speed was relatively slower. As technology advances, the
size of the computer drastically decreases with the advent of the microprocessor technology
and the processing speed was also increased.
Classifications of computer-based on purpose

A computer is broadly classified into two categories according to their purpose:

• General-purpose computer
• Specific-purpose computer

General-purpose computer

A general-purpose computer is designed to perform a common range of tasks. These types

of computers have the ability to store multiple programs. They can be used for business
applications, scientific purposes, for educations, and for home use. Even though such
computers are versatile, they are not much efficient and also slower in speed.
Specific-purpose computer

Specific-purpose computers are made to perform a specific task or it can handle a single
specific task. They are not designed to handle multiple programs. Hence, they lacked
versatility. Since they are made to handle a specific task, they are more efficient and faster than
general-purpose computers. These computers are used for satellite tracking, air-traffic control,
airline reservations etc.
Classifications of computer-based on data handling
The computer is further classified into three categories according to their data handling
capabilities or how they process the input data in a different manner. They are:

• Digital
computer
• Analog computer
• Hybrid computer

Digital Computer

A digital computer deals with the data that can be stored in binary format, i.e., 0s and 1s. The
data or information in this computer is stored in voltage pulses which represent either 0 or
1. Any type of data, whether a text document, music file, or graphic image, all are converted
into binary format before it can be stored into a computer’s memory. It is a device that
manipulates discrete data and performs arithmetic and logical functions.
Analog Computer

An Analog computer is used to process the analog data. The analog data is continuously
changing or varying data. The analog computer is used to measure the continuous varying
aspects of physical quantities like an electrical current, voltages, hydraulic pressure, or other
electrical and mechanical properties. Analog computer does not measure the discrete values.
They are used in scientific and industrial applications.
Hybrid Computer

A hybrid computer constitutes both analog and digital computer systems. The hybrid computer
has the capability to process the input in both the analog and digital formats. The analog portion
of the system can handle the continuous varying aspects of complex mathematical computation,
whereas the digital portion handles the numerical and logical operation. The digital portion
also acts as the controller of the system.
Examples: hybrid computers are used in medical science to measure the heartbeat of the patient,
also used in controlling industrial processes and scientific applications.
Classifications of computer-based on their functionality and sizes

The computer is divided into four categories based on their physical sizes, functionality, and
applications. They are:

• Supercomputer
• Mainframe computer
• Minicomputer
• Microcomputer
Supercomputer

Supercomputers are the largest, fastest, most powerful, and most expensive among digital
computers. The first supercomputer was built in the 1960s for the Department of Defence of
the United States of America (USA). Supercomputers derive their speed from the use of
multiple processors and can be accessed by many individuals at the same time. Supercomputers
are used primarily for scientific applications and complex calculations in large volumes. The
aerospace, automotive, chemical, electronics, and petroleum industries use them extensively
and they are also used for weather forecasting and seismic analysis. Some of the famous
supercomputers are Jaguar, Nebulae, Roadrunner, Kraken, Tianhe-1, etc.
Mainframe computer

Mainframe computers or mainframes are the most widely used type of digital computers in
large industries for controlling processes and in offices for maintaining networks and allowing
access to shared resources. IBM holds an estimated two-thirds of the mainframe market. For
intensive operation, they are much more suitable than supercomputers. Many modern
computers have multi-processing capabilities but are generally limited to eight or fewer
processors. The processor’s speed is measured in megaflops (millions of floating-point
arithmetic operations per second. Mainframe computer systems are powerful enough to support
a hundred users simultaneously at remote terminals. It can support hundreds of users by
keeping numerous programs in primary memory and rapidly switching back and forth between
them. This capacity to process many programs simultaneously for multiple users is known as
multi-programming.
Examples of mainframe systems are: the IBM-3000 series, IBM 4300, IBM 3090, etc
Mini computer

The age of mini computers started in the 1960s when Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC)
released the first DEC PDP-8 minicomputer in 1968. Like mainframes, most mini-computers
are multiuser and general-purpose computers. The major difference between mainframes and
minicomputers is that mini-computers are slower even if they perform the same type of tasks
as mainframes. For example, the PDP series.
Microcomputer:

A microcomputer is the most commonly used computer that is generally used at homes,
schools, banks, offices, etc. It is a small, low-cost digital computer that consists of a single
microprocessor, storage unit, and input /output device. The microcomputer is generally made
for individual use only. They were originally called microcomputers because they are much
smaller in size as compared to supercomputers and mainframes. They are commonly used in
homes, offices and personal use, hence also called a personal computer. The microcomputer
includes desktop computers and portable computers like a laptop, personal digital assistant
(PDA)
Desktop computer
A desktop computer or more popularly known as PC (Personal computer) is the most
commonly used microcomputer. It consists of a CPU (Central Processing Unit), keyboard and
mouse as input units, monitor or display unit as an output device. The CPU consists of
Microprocessor, main memory, secondary storage unit like hard drive, optical drive, power
supply unit that is housed in a single cabinet. Some of the major desktop computer
manufacturers are IBM, Apple, Dell, and Hewlett-Packard.
Portable computer
Other than desktop computers, portable computers like laptops and PDAs have become more
favorite among individuals. The best part of this portable computer is that it can be easily
carried along by the individual. Laptops too consist of all the components as the desktop
computer constitutes, but they are more compact and smaller in size.
Another portable computer is a portable digital assistant (PDA) which is the size of a palm.
Hence, it is also called a palmtop computer. The PDAs are used to organize schedules, take
important notes, set reminders, do mathematical calculations, play games, and even surf the
internet and send emails. Apple launched the first PDA called Newton in 1993. The other most
commonly used PDAs are Palm Pilot, Handspring Visor, HP Jordana, Compaq Aero, Franklyn
eBook Man, etc.

1.5 Computing Concepts

The most elementary
computing concepts include
receiving input— known as data—
from the user, manipulating the
input according to the given set of
instructions and delivering the output—known as information—to the user.

The various functions performed by the computer are briefly described below:
• Accepting the raw data The first task to be performed by a computer is to accept
the data from the user, with the help of an input device, such as mouse and keyboard.
Mouse is used to enter the data through point-and-click operation while keyboard is
used to enter the character data by typing the various keys. We need to enter the data
into the computer so as to obtain the required result as output.
 • Processing the data The data is processed with the help of specific instructions
known as programs after taking the input from the user. The manipulation of data is
handled by the CPU of the computer. CPU is considered as the brain of the computer
because it controls the execution of various instructions. The raw data entered by the
user through input devices is processed by the CPU to generate meaningful
information.
• Storing the data The data is stored in the main memory of a computer in its
processed form. The various external storage devices—such as hard disk and
magnetic disk—can also be used for storing the processed data so that it can again
be fetched later.
• Delivering the output The processed data is delivered as useful information to the
user with the help of output devices, such as printer and monitor.

1.6 The Computer System

A Computer System, small or big, in order to carry out its functions successfully, must
essentially include the following four sub-systems:
• Hardware
• Software
• Data
• People

Hardware

• The physical devices that make up the computer are called Hardware. The hardware
units are responsible for entering, storing and processing the given data and then
displaying the output to the users.
• The basic hardware units of a general purpose computer are keyboard, mouse,
memory, CPU, monitor and printer. Among these hardware units, keyboard and
mouse are used to input data into the computer, memory isused to store the entered
data, CPU is used to process the entered data and monitor and printer are used to
display the processed data to the users.
• CPU is the main component inside the computer that is responsible for performing
various operations and also for managing the input and output devices. It includes
two components for its functioning, Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit
(CU). ALU is used to perform the arithmetic operations, such as addition,
subtraction, etc. and logic operations, such as AND, OR, etc. on the data obtained
fromthe memory. CU is used to control the activities related to the input and output
devices

Software

• The term software refers to a set of programs and instructions that help the
computers in carrying out their processing. Software is very necessary for the proper
functioning of a computer. There are mainly two typesof software, viz. Application
Software and System Software:
Application software The programs, which are designed to perform a
 specific task for the user,are known as application software. Application software
is also referred as end-user programs becauseits functions are used by the user for
obtaining the desired results. Word processor, database programs, presentation
programs and spreadsheets are the examples of application software.
System software The programs, which are designed to control the different
operations of the computer, are known as system software. It mainly manages the
activities of the computer hardware and interacts with the application software to
perform a particular task. Operating systems, compilers, assemblers, interpreters and
device drivers are the examples of system software.

Data

• Data refer to the raw facts and pieces of information that is usually entered into
the computer system bythe user, so as to generate the desired output. The data are
presented in a form understandable by the computer system and the result is
delivered in a form understandable by the users. In a computer system, data are
manipulated by a program consisting of different instructions. Depending on the
requirement, data can be presented in two forms, viz. Quantitative and Qualitative.
Qualitative data The data, which are represented in words or text form, are
known as qualitative data. This type of data can also include images, videos and audio
used for the graphical presentation.
Quantitative data The data, which are represented in numerical form, are
known as quantitative data. This type of data includes different numbers and symbols
used for representing a particular quantity.

People

• Computer systems are designed by the people, for the people. People, therefore,
include the people who design and build hardware and software (known as systems
people) and the people who actually use computer systems for their applications
(known as users).
• Systems people include hardware engineers, software engineers, programmers, etc.
Users might includea variety of people working in different areas of applications,
such as education, business, entertainment, training, etc.

1.7 Applications Of Computers

1 Education Computers are used in schools and colleges to teach students in a better and
easy way. The students can get more information about a specific topic or subject using
the Internet. Computers help in easy learning by creating presentations on a specific topic.
Today, students can fill their application forms
and give their exams online that facilitates distance education. Computer-based learning
and web-based learning are very popular amongst students.
2 Business Computers are used in different types of business to store a large amount of
information in the form of databases. Using computers, business meetings can be held
between people sitting at remote locations through web conferencing. Buyers and sellers
can conduct business online through the use of
computers and Internet.
3 Communication Computers that are connected with each other can be used to transfer
 data to and from other computers. In order to establish communication between two users,
Internet is one of the most common mediums. E-mail is a popular system through which
a user can send/receive text messages,
graphic messages and file attachments.
4 Science Computers are used by various scientists for the purpose of research and
development. They generally make use of computer for research and analysis of new
theories. With the help of computers, scientists are moving towards the possibility of
predicting natural disasters, such as earthquake and
tsunami.
5 Engineering Computers are used by the engineers for the creation of complex drawings
and designs while working in different fields, like automobiles and construction.
Engineers use computers extensively for numerical computing.
6 Entertainment Computers are used in the entertainment industry for creating graphics
and animations. There are various free as well as proprietary graphics softwares available
for creating graphics and animations.
7 Banking Nowadays, computers are being increasingly used for online banking. Through
online banking, the users or customers can transfer and receive money by using computers
and Internet. Some banks also provide the facility of online bill payment through their
websites.
8 Health Computers are used by doctors to diagnose various kinds of diseases and
ailments. Several analog and digital devices are connected with computers enabling the
doctors to monitor the condition of a patient and view the internal organs of the body.
Hospitals use computers to maintain and manage patient records
and billing systems. They also use the concept of ‘tele-medicine’ to serve the patients at
remote locations.
9 Government Computers play a crucial role in almost all government departments.
Revenue, industry, census, police, defense and many other departments use computers
extensively to serve the people better. The concept of ‘e-governance’ is becoming popular
among various government agencies.

1.8 Computer Organisation and Architecture:

• Computer organisation and computer architecture are two different but related, important
concepts that are required to describe a computer system. Computer architecture refers
to the definition of basic attributes of hardware components and their
interconnections, in order to achieve certain specified goals in terms of functions and
performance.
• The architecture basically definesthe logical structure of a computer system.
• Computer organisation refers to the design and physical arrangement of various
hardware units to work in tandem, in an orderly manner, in orderto achieve the goals
specified in the architecture.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
 The function of any computer system revolves around a central component known
as central processing unit (CPU). The CPU, which is popularly referred to as the
“brain” of the computer, is responsible for processing the data inside the computer
system. It is also responsible for controlling all other components ofthe system.

The main operations of the CPU include four phases:

• Fetching instructions from the memory.
• Decoding the instructions to decide what operations to be preformed.
• Executing the instructions.
• Storing the results back in the memory.
This four-phase process is known as the CPU cycle, which is illustrated in Fig. 2.2.
As shown in the Fig. 2.1, the central processing unit consists of the following subsystems:
• Arithmetic Unit (AU)
• Logic Unit (LU)
• Control Unit (CU)
The CPU makes use of the following memory subsystems for carrying out its processing
operations:
• Main Memory Unit
• Cache Memory
• Registers

Arithmetic Unit (AU) is a part of the CPU that performs arithmetic operations on the data. The
arithmetic operations can be addition, subtraction, multiplication or division. The
 multiplication and division operations are usually implemented by the AU as the repetitive
process of addition and subtraction operations respectively.
Logic Unit (LU) is a part of the CPU that performs logical operations on the data. It
performs 16 different types of logical operations. The various logical operations include
greater than (>), less than (<), equal to (=), not equal to (≠), shift left, shift right, etc. LU
makes use of various logic gates, such as AND, OR, NOR, etc for performing the logical
operations on the data.

Control Unit (CU) is an important component of CPU that controls the flow of data and
information.It maintains the sequence of operations being performed by the CPU. It fetches an
instruction from the storage area, decodes the instruction and transmits the corresponding
signals to the AU or LU and the storage registers.
The main memory is referred to as the internal memory or primary memory of the computer. It
is also known as Random Access Memory (RAM). It is a temporary storage medium that
holds the data onlyfor a short period of time. Once the computer is switched off, the data
stored in the RAM gets erased.
Cache memory is a small, fast and expensive memory that stores the copies of data that needs
to be accessed frequently from the main memory. The processor, before reading data from or
writing data to the main memory, checks for the same data in the cache memory.

• Primary cache It is also known as Level 1 (L1) cache or internal cache. The primary cache
is located inside the CPU. It is smaller but fastest type of cache that provides a quick access
to the frequently accessed data by the microprocessor.
• Secondary cache It is also known as Level 2 (L2) cache or external cache. The secondary
cache is located outside the CPU. It is normally positioned on the motherboard of a computer.
The secondary cache is larger but slower than the primary cache.

Registers

Central processing unit contains a few special purpose, temporary storage units known as
registers.They are high-speed memory locations used for holding instructions, data and
intermediate results thatare currently being processed. A processor can have different types
of registers to hold different types of information. They include, among others:
• Program Counter (PC) to keep track of the next instruction to be executed.
• Instruction Register (IR) to hold instructions to be decoded by the control unit.
• Memory Address Register (MAR) to hold the address of the next location in the
memory to beaccessed.
 • Memory Buffer Register (MBR) for storing data received from or sent to CPU.
• Memory Data Register (MDR) for storing operands and data.
• Accumulator (ACC) for storing the results produced by arithmetic and logic units
1.9 Internal communication

CPU of the computer system communicates with the memory and the I/O devices in order to
transfer data between them. However the method of communication of the CPU with memory
and I/O devices in different. The CPU may communicate with the memory either directly or
through the Cache memory. However, the communication between the CPU and I/O devices
is usually implemented with the help of interface. Therefore the internal communication of a
processor in the computer can be divided into two major categories:

1. Processor-to-memory communication
2. Processor to I/O devices communication

1) Processor-to-memory communication

The direct communication between the processor and memory of the computer system is
implemented with the help of two registers. Memory Address register (MAR) and Memory
Buffer register (MBR). The processor can interact with the memory of the computer system
for reading data from the memory as well as for writing data on to the memory. The MAR and
MBR register play a very important role in implementing this type of communication. These
registers are the special purpose register of the processor.

The processor perform the following steps to read the data:

1. First, the processor loads the address of the memory location from where data is in the
reader into the MAR register using the address bus.
2. After loading the address of the memory location the processor issues the READ control
signal through the control bus. The control bus is used to carry the commands issued
by the processor and status signals are generated by the various devices in response to
these commands.
3. After receiving the READ control signal the memory loads the data into the MDR
register from the location specified in the MAR register using the Data bus.
4. Finally, the data is transferred to the processor.

The processor perform the following steps for writing the data:

1. First, the processor loads the address of the memory location where data is to be written
in the MAR register using the address.
2. After loading the address of the memory location the processor loads the desired data
in the MDR register using the Data bus.
3. After this, the processor issues the WRITE control signal to the memory using the
control bus.
4. Finally, the memory stores the data loaded in the MDR register at the desired memory
location.
2) Processor to I/O devices communication

The communication between the I/O devices and the processor of the computer system is
implemented using an interface unit. In a computer system data is transferred from an input
device to the processor and from the processor to an output device.

Some steps are performed while transferring data from I/O devices:

1. The data is to be transferred is placed on the data bus by the input devices which transfer
single bytes of data at a time.
2. The input devices then issue the data valid signal through the devices control bus to the
data register, including that the data is available on the data bus.
3. As the data register now holds the data the For the flog bit of the same register in the
interface unit.
4. The processor the now issue an I/O read signal to the data registers in the interface unit.
5. The data register then places the data on the data on the data bus connected to the
processor of the computer system.

Machine Cycle:

The cycle during which a machine language instruction is executed by the processor of
the computer systemis known as machine cycle. If a program consists of 10 machine language
instructions, 10 separate machinecycles would be executed for running the program.

The four phases of the machine cycle are usually grouped into two categories:
• Instruction cycle
• Execution cycle
Instruction Cycle

Instruction cycle includes the first two phases, fetching and decoding.
Fetching In this phase, the CPU retrieves the instruction from the main memory of
the computersystem. The address of the instruction that needs to be executed is sent to
the CPU through the address bus. The address of the instruction is then stored by the
CPU in its internal register known as Program Counter (PC). After the address of the
instruction is confirmed by the CPU, the actual instruction is retrieved by the CPU form
the main memory and stored in the Instruction Register (IR).
• Decoding This phase of instruction cycle is responsible for breaking down the
instruction into different parts, so that it can be easily understood before being
processed by the CPU. The instructionis usually decoded by the instruction decoder,
which is a vital component of the CPU. The decodingof an instruction is also known
as interpreting. The instructions are interpreted to determine two key attributes of an
instruction, the opcode and the operands. The opcode specifies the operation to be
performed and the operands specify the data on which the operation is to be performed.
The data is transferred to the Data Register (DR).

Execution Cycle

The execution cycle includes two phases, executing and storing. The execution cycle
executes the instruction and stores the result back to the main memory or sends it to the
output device of the computer system.
• Executing In this phase, the decoded instruction is executed by the ALU of the CPU.
The execution time spent by the ALU for executing an instruction may vary, depending
on the type of the instruction. The execution time also depends on the processor
architecture.
• Storing In this phase, the result computed in the execution phase is either sent to the
memory or toan output device of the computer system. The PC of the CPU is also
updated in this phase to point to the next instruction that is to be executed. After the
execution cycle is completed, the next machine cycle begins.

The BUS:
A bus is a set of wires that is used to connect the different internal components of the
computer system for the purpose of transferring data as well addresses amongst them. There
may be severalbuses in a computer system.
A bus can either bea serial bus or a parallel bus.
In serial bus, onlyone bit of data is transferred at a time amongstthe various
hardware components.
parallel bus, several bits of data can be transferred at a time amongst the various
hardwarecomponents. The speed of any type of bus is measured in terms of the number of
bits transferredper second, between two components.
 These buses aredata bus and the address bus. Apart from data and address bus, a third type of
bus—known as control bus—also exists in the computer system. The control bus manages the transfer of
data and addressesamong various components by transferring appropriate control signals.

Data Bus:
The data bus in a computer system is used to transfer data among the different internal
components. The speed of the data bus also affects the overall processing power of a computer
system. Modern computer systems use 32-bit data buses for data transfer.

Address Bus:
The address bus is also known as memory bus. It transfers the memory addresses for read and
write memory operations. It contains a number of address lines that determine the range of
memory addresses that can be referenced using the address bus.
INSTRUCTION SET

• An instruction set is a group of commands for a central processing unit (CPU) in

machine language. The term can refer to all possible instructions for a CPU or a subset
of instructions to enhance its performance in certain situations.

• All CPUs have instruction sets that enable commands directing the CPU to switch the
relevant transistors. The instructions tell the CPU to perform tasks. Some instructions
are simple read, write and move commands that direct data to different hardware
elements.

• The instructions are made up of a specific number of bits. For instance, The CPU's
instructions might be 8 bits, where the first 4 bits make up the operation code that tells
the computer what to do. The next 4 bits are the operand, which tells the computer the
data that should be used.

• Complex instruction set computer. CISC processors have an additional

microcode or microprogramming layer where instructions act as small programs.
Programmable instructions are stored in fast memory and can be updated. More
instructions are included in CISC instruction sets than in other types of instruction
sets. A single instruction can initiate multiple actions by the computer, such as a
single add command launching multiple memory access load and store instructions.

• Reduced instruction set computer. RISC architecture has hard-wired control. It

does not require microcode, but has a greater base instruction set. RISC also uses a
smaller and more compact instruction set with a fixed instruction format. RISC
processors are designed to process faster and more efficiently.

• Enhancement instruction sets. These instruction types are more familiar because
they are often used in marketing CPUs. Examples of this go back to the 166-
megahertz Intel Pentium with Multi Media Extensions (MMX) technologies. It was
introduced in 1996 and marketed with enhanced Intel CPU multimedia
performance. MMX refers to the extended instruction set.

Why are instruction sets important?

The ISA is fundamental for building fast, efficient computers that optimize memory and
processing resources. It specifies the following supported capabilities:

• instructions
 • data types

• processor registers

• main memory hardware

• input/output model

• addressing modes

Memory Storage System:

A storage device for a computer enables its user to store and safely access the data and
applications on a computer device. Knowing and learning about these computer storage devices
is necessary as it works as one of the core components of the system.
Computer Storage Device Definition: A hardware device which can be used to store digital
data and applications which may be in the form of images, video, audio, etc. is called a storage
device. It is a key component of a computer and the hard drive is one of its examples.

Types of Computer Storage

The computer storage unit is divided into three parts. Given below are details about the three
types of computer storage:

• Primary Storage: This is the direct memory which is accessible to the Central
Processing Unit (CPU).
o This is also known as the main memory and is volatile.
o This is temporary. As soon as the device turns off or is rebooted, the memory is
erased
o It is smaller in size
o Primary storage comprises only of Internal memory
o Examples of primary storage include RAM, cache memory, etc.

• Secondary Storage: This type of storage does not have direct accessibility to the
Central Processing Unit.
o The input and output channels are used to connect such storage devices to the
computer, as they are mainly external
o It is non-volatile and larger storage capacity in comparison to primary storage
o This type of storage is permanent until removed by an external factor
o It comprises of both internal and external memory
o Examples of secondary storage are USB drives, floppy disks, etc.

• Tertiary Memory: This type of storage is generally not considered to be important and
is generally not a part of personal computers.
 o It involves mounting and unmounting of mass storage data which is removable
from a computer device
o This type of storage holds robotic functions
o It does not always require human intervention and can function automatically

List of Computer Storage Devices

There are four types of devices in which computer data can be stored. Discussed below are the
same in detail.

Magnetic Storage Devices

The most commonly used storage devices in today’s time are magnetic storage devices. These
are affordable and easily accessible. A large amount of data can be stored in these through
magnetised mediums.

A magnetic field is created when the device is attached to the computer and with the help of
the two magnetic polarities, the device is able to read the binary language and store the
information. Given below are the examples of magnetic storage devices.

• Floppy Disk – Also known as a floppy diskette, it is a removable storage device which
is in the shape of a square and comprises magnetic elements. When placed in the disk
reader of the computer device, it spins around and can store information. Lately, these
floppy disks have been replaced with CDs, DVDs and USB drives
• Hard Drive – This primary storage device is directly attached to the motherboard’s disk
controller. It is integral storage space as it is required to install any new program or
application to the device. Software programs, images, videos, etc. can all be saved in a
hard drive and hard drives with storage space in terabytes are also easily available now
• Zip Disk – Introduced by Iomega, is a removable storage device which was initially
released with a storage space of 100 MB which was later increased to 250 and then
finally 750 MB
• Magnetic Strip – A magnetic strip is attached in the device comprising digital data. The
most suitable example for this is a debit card which has a strip placed on one of its sides
which stores the digital data.

Optical Storage Devices

Such devices used lasers and lights to detect and store data. They are cheaper in comparison to
USB drives and can store more data. Discussed below are a few commonly used optical storage
devices.

• CD-ROM – This stands for Compact Disc – Read-Only Memory and is an external
device that can store and read data in the form of audio or software data
 • Blu-Ray Disc – Introduced in 2006, Blu-ray disk was backup up by major IT and
computer companies. It can store up to 25 GB data in a single-layer disc and 50 GB
data in a dual-layer disc
• DVD – Digital Versatile Disc is another type of optical storage device. It can be
readable, recordable, and rewritable. Recordings can be done in such devices and then
can be attached to the system
• CD-R – It is a readable Compact Disc which uses photosensitive organic dye to record
data and store it. They are a low-cost replacement for storing software and applications

Flash Memory Devices

These storage devices have now replaced both magnetic and optical storage devices. They are
easy to use, portable and easily available and accessible. They have become a cheaper and more
convenient option to store data.

Discussed below are the major flash memory devices which are being commonly used by the
people nowadays.

• USB Drive – Also, known as a pen drive, this storage device is small in size and is
portable and ranges between storage space of 2 GB to 1 TB. It comprises an integrated
circuit which allows it to store data and also replace it
• Memory Card – Usually attached with smaller electronic and computerised devices like
mobile phones or digital camera, a memory card can be used to store images, videos
and audios and is compatible and small in size
• Memory Stick – Originally launched by Sony, a memory stick can store more data and
is easy and quick to transfer data using this storage device. Later on, various other
versions of memory stock were also released
• SD Card – Known as Secure Digital Card, it is used in various electronic devices to
store data and is available in mini and micro sizes. Generally, computers have a separate
slot to insert an SD card. In case they do not have one, separate USBs are available in
which these cards can be inserted and then connected to the computer

MAGNETO OPTICAL SYSTEMS

• Magneto Optical (MO) storage systems include the features of both magnetic and
optical disks. The main objective of the MO system is to store the data used in personal
computers for a long period of time. It reads/writes data by making use of laser and
optical technologies. It has a ferromagnetic material enclosed in the plastic coating. The
laser beam used for reading data gets reflected due to the magnetic surface of the disk.
The MO system is not popular among the users because its speed is slower and
manufacturing cost is higher than other storage devices. These optical storage systems
are available in two standard forms:
• 3.5 inch form factor
• 5.5 inch form factor
SOLID-STATE STORAGE DEVICES

• Solid-state Storage Devices (SSDs) were developed in 1978 by Storage Tek Company.
In 1983, the Sharp- 5000 laptop computers developed by Sharp Corporation used SSD
of 128 KB storage. In 1995, M-System developed the SSD on flash based memory.
• SSD can be defined as the device that contains all the properties of hard disk drives to
store the data and use solid-state memory, which has no moving parts. These devices
do not use magnetic and optical medium to store data. Rather, these devices use the
semiconductor devices. The main objective of these devices is to process the
instructions electronically. SSDs have no mechanical parts due to which access time in
case of SSDs is less. This provides the facility of faster accessing of data as compared
to any other storage devices. The storage capacity of SSD is lower than that of the hard
disk. The examples of SSD are flash memory cards and Universal Serial Bus (USB)
devices. These devices are widely used in laptops to store data.

Structure of SSD

• The structure of SSD basically uses the advantages, such as non volatility, low
consumption and high reliability of DRAM and NAND flash memory. These
advantages of DRAM and NAND flash memory help in creating SSD. The SSD created
using the advantages of flash memory is called flash memory based SSD.

Advantages of SSD

• Solid-state storage devices possess many advantages. They include:

• Better performance Performance includes various factors like accessing speed,
searching and spin-up function. SSDs provide random accessing of the stored data and
their accessing speed is faster as compared to the hard drives. The searching process of
the required data is faster than the hard disk drives. Moreover, they do not need any
spin-up process to start-up.
• Low power and heat SSD provides the facility to decrease the power consumption due
to low storage capacity. They provide the facility to decrease the heat reduction due to
low storage capacity, except for the D-RAM based SSD.
• High reliability SSD provides constant and more reliable performance, as compared to
hard disk drives because the seek time, which is the delay associated with the reading
or writing data on computer’s disk drives, is constant in SSDs. They provide the facility
of high mechanical reliability, as they have no moving parts in their construction.
• Small dimension SSDs have low weight and small size, as compared to the weight and
size of the hard disk drives. The reason behind the less weight and the small size is the
low storage capacity of the SSD that also facilitates easy transportation.
• Small form factor Form factor defines the size and the dimensions of a physical device.
SSD provides small form factor to Ultra Mobile Personal Computers (UMPC) that can
be very useful in the market of Personal Computers (PC) for compact space.
Input Devices:
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Joy Stick
• Light pen
• Track Ball
• Scanner
• Graphic Tablet
• Microphone
• Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
• Optical Character Reader(OCR)
• Bar Code Reader
• Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −

S.No Keys & Description

Typing Keys
1
These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (09) which generally give
the same layout as that of typewriters.
 Numeric Keypad
2 It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of
a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.

Function Keys
3 The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row
at the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used
for some specific purpose.

Control keys
4 These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

5
Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and
sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it
cannot be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
• Easy to use
• Not very expensive
• Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical
ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or
draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can
be moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can
be stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in
a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had
been pointed at.
Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be
a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.
Output Devices:

Introduction: An output device is a crucial component of any computer system or electronic device,
serving as the means through which processed data, information, or media is presented or
communicated to users in a human-readable or perceivable form.
❖ It plays a vital role in the data processing cycle, where data is input, processed, and then
output for users to interact with and understand.
❖ The primary purpose of an output device is to make information accessible and usable to
humans. Without output devices, the data processed by computers or electronic devices would
remain hidden and indecipherable.
❖ These devices provide a way for users to interact with the digital world, receive feedback, and
interpret the results of their interactions.
❖ An output device is used to get the result of the processing done by the computer. The most
common output devices include monitors and printers.

Examples: Monitors, Printers, Projectors, Speakers, and headphones.

Monitors and Displays: Monitors or displays are visual output devices that present digital
information in the form of text, images, videos, graphical user interfaces (GUIs), and other visual
content.

Printers: Printers are output devices that produce hard copies of digital documents or images on
paper or other physical media. They are used for creating physical records or sharing information in a
tangible format.

Impact printers
❖ Impact printers make a picture by utilizing some tool to press an inked ribbon on the cover,
presenting the ink be kept on the page in the shape accordingly.
❖ These printers produce so much noise, but people are still using them because of the quality
and capability to work with multipart structures.
Examples: Ball printers, Dot-matrix, Daisy wheel printers, Line printers, Drum printers, and Chain
printers.

Non-Impact Printer
• Non-impact printers create pictures, characters, and figures without any uninterrupted contact
between the printing device and the paper.

Example:
• Laser printers, Inkjet printers, and Thermal printers.

Plotters
• A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from a computer to make line drawings on
paper with one or more automated pens.
• Unlike a regular printer, a plotter can draw continuous point-to-point lines directly from
vector graphic files or commands.

Uses of Plotter
• Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper.
• It interprets computer commands and makes line drawings on paper using multicolored
automated pens.
• It is capable of producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.
Voice Output – Systems
• Speakers are one of the most common output devices used on computers to achieve audio
output.
• Computer speakers usually receive signals from the sound card and then convert them to
audio.
Speakers and Headphones: These audio output devices convert digital audio data into sound waves,
allowing users to listen to music, videos, voice recordings, and other audio content.
Projectors: Projectors display visual information on a larger screen or surface, often used in
presentations, home theaters, and classrooms.
Terminals
• A computer terminal is an electronic or electromechanical hardware device that can be used
for entering data into, and transcribing data from, a computer or a computing system.
• The teletype was an example of an early-day hard-copy terminal and predated the use of a
computer screen by decades.