Mcs mod 1

: How Cell Splitting Improves Capacity of a Cellular System

Justification:

1. Increased Channel Reuse:

Cell splitting divides a large congested cell into smaller cells (microcells), each with its own
base station. Smaller cells reuse the same frequency channels more often, thereby increasing
the number of times channels can be reused, which increases system capacity.

2. More Cells per Unit Area:

Reducing the radius of each cell to half reduces its area to one-fourth. To cover the same
service area, approximately four times as many cells are required. More cells mean more
base stations handling traffic, which increases the number of available channels and
supports more simultaneous calls.

3. Maintains Frequency Reuse Ratio:

Microcells are positioned to preserve the frequency reuse plan, ensuring that co-channel
interference does not increase. This allows the system to maintain the minimum co-channel
reuse ratio (Q) while increasing capacity.

4. Reduces Congestion:
With more base stations serving smaller areas, traffic per base station is reduced,
minimizing blocking and call drops. This improves the overall efficiency and capacity of the
system.

5. Optimized Transmit Power:

Smaller cells use lower transmit power, which reduces interference with adjacent cells and
allows more cells to coexist in the same area without degrading performance.

What is frequency reuse? And Explain Umbrella Cell concept.

1. Frequency Reuse:
Frequency reuse is a fundamental concept in cellular systems where the same set of frequency
channels is used in different cells that are sufficiently far apart to avoid interference.

• Each cell is allocated a group of channels.

• Adjacent cells use different channel groups to prevent co-channel interference.

• The pattern of cells using all available frequencies forms a cluster, which is then replicated
throughout the coverage region.

• The frequency reuse factor is defined as 1/ N, where NNN is the cluster size (e.g., for N=7,
reuse factor = 1/7).

This technique allows efficient utilization of the limited frequency spectrum while providing wide
coverage and large capacity.

2. Umbrella Cell Concept:

The umbrella cell concept is used to efficiently handle users moving at different speeds within a
cellular system.
 • A large cell (umbrella cell) covers a wide area and is mainly used to serve high-speed users
(e.g., vehicles on highways).

• Within the same area, several small microcells are deployed to serve low-speed or
stationary users (e.g., pedestrians, in-building users).

• This arrangement reduces the number of handoffs for fast-moving users (since they remain
under the umbrella cell for longer), while slow-moving users benefit from the increased
capacity of the smaller microcells.

Explain the System capacity and co channel interference with diagram.

Got it You want a 7–8 marks style answer on System Capacity and Co-channel Interference with
diagram. Here’s a concise, exam-ready explanation:

System Capacity and Co-channel Interference

1. System Capacity

• In cellular systems, the total available spectrum is divided among multiple users.

• To maximize capacity, the same set of frequencies is reused in different cells separated by a
certain distance.

• A group of cells using all available channels is called a cluster.

• If a cluster has N cells, and total channels available are C, then the number of channels per
cell is:

Channels per cell= C/N

• Smaller N → higher capacity, but more interference.

• Larger N → better quality (less interference), but reduced capacity.

2. Co-channel Interference (CCI)

• Cells using the same frequency set are called co-channel cells.

• Interference between them is called co-channel interference.

 • Unlike thermal noise, CCI cannot be reduced by increasing power, because increasing power
also increases interference in neighboring co-channel cells.

• To reduce CCI, co-channel cells must be separated by a minimum distance DD.

The co-channel reuse ratio (Q) is defined as:

where:

• DD = distance between co-channel cells

• RR = cell radius

• NN = cluster size

• Small Q → more capacity, high interference.

• Large Q → less interference, low capacity.

Explain in detail proper handoff and improper handoff with neat diagram.

Handoff in Cellular Systems

Handoff is the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one cell (base station) to
another as a user moves through the coverage area.

1. Proper Handoff:

• A handoff is said to be proper when the call is successfully transferred from one base station
to another without call drop or noticeable interruption.

• It occurs when the received signal strength (RSS) from the serving base station falls below a
threshold, while the signal from the neighboring base station is strong enough.

• Ensures continuity of service, better quality, and user experience.

Example: A mobile user moving from Cell A to Cell B gets seamlessly connected to Cell B before the
signal from Cell A becomes too weak.

2. Improper Handoff:

• A handoff is improper if it does not occur at the correct time or in the right way, leading to
issues such as:

o Early handoff: Call is handed over too soon, even though the old base station could
still provide good service.

o Late handoff: Call is handed over too late, causing signal degradation or call drop.

o False handoff: Handoff is initiated unnecessarily (e.g., due to sudden fading),

although the mobile has not really moved into another cell.

• Results in call drops, degraded quality, and inefficient use of resources.

What are the different channel assignment strategies used in cellular network

1. Fixed Channel Assignment (FCA):

• Each cell is allocated a predetermined set of frequency channels permanently.

• A call in a cell can only use the unused channels of that cell.

• If all channels are busy, the new call is blocked.

• Variation – Borrowing Strategy:

o If a cell has no free channels, it may borrow a channel from a neighboring cell.

o The Mobile Switching Center (MSC) manages the borrowing and ensures no
interference with ongoing calls in the donor cell.

• Advantage: Simple to implement.

• Disadvantage: Higher call blocking probability under uneven traffic load.

2. Dynamic Channel Assignment (DCA):

• Channels are not permanently allocated to cells.

• Every time a call request is made, the base station asks the MSC for a channel.

• The MSC dynamically assigns a channel based on factors such as:

o Traffic load,

o Channel reuse distance,

o Frequency of usage,
 o Signal quality.

• This ensures a channel is only assigned if it is not being used in a co-channel interference
range.

• Advantage:

o Lower blocking probability,

o Better spectrum utilization,

o Increased trunking efficiency.

• Disadvantage: Requires continuous real-time monitoring of channel usage, adding

computational complexity.

Aspect Co-Channel Interference (CCI) Adjacent Channel Interference (ACI)

Interference caused by reuse of the Interference caused due to imperfect

Definition same frequency channel in different filtering, where energy from channels in
cells (co-channel cells). adjacent frequency bands overlaps.

Due to imperfect receiver selectivity,

Due to frequency reuse in cellular
improper channel assignment, or
Cause systems (cells with same frequency set
inadequate filtering between adjacent
interfere).
frequency bands.

Controlled by increasing co-channel

Minimized by careful filtering, proper
Control reuse ratio (Q = D/R = √3N), i.e.,
channel assignment, and strict power
Method increasing the distance (D) between co-
control.
channel cells.

Limits system capacity (smaller cluster Causes signal distortion and call quality
Impact
size increases CCI). degradation.

Independent of transmitted power

Power Strongly depends on transmitter power
(increasing power increases both desired
Dependence leakage into adjacent bands.
and interfering signals).

List the definitions used in Trunking and Grade of Service,

Set-up Time

• Time required to allocate a trunked radio channel to a requesting user.

Blocked Call (Lost Call)

• A call that cannot be completed at the time of request due to congestion.

Holding Time (H seconds)

• Average duration of a typical call.

Traffic Intensity (A Erlangs)

 • Measure of channel time utilization (average channel occupancy).

• Dimensionless and measured in Erlangs.

Load

• Traffic intensity across the entire trunked radio system (in Erlangs).

Grade of Service (GOS)

• A measure of congestion.

• For Erlang B: probability of a call being blocked.

• For Erlang C: probability of a call being delayed beyond a certain time.

Request Rate (λ seconds⁻¹)

• Average number of call requests per unit time.

Technique Full Form & Concept Key Feature Advantages Limitations

Space Spectrum
Multiple Access – a
Increases system
generic term used to
Combines spectrum capacity by More complex to
describe multiple access
SSMA sharing with spatial exploiting both implement (requires
techniques that utilize
diversity (antennas). spectrum & smart antennas).
both frequency
space.
spectrum and spatial
separation of users.

Space Division Multiple

Access – users are Allocates same Improves
Needs advanced
separated by frequency/time spectrum
antenna systems and
SDMA geographical location resources to different efficiency,
precise beam
using directional users separated reduces
steering.
antennas or smart spatially. interference.
antenna beamforming.

In OFDM, many High PAPR requires

Allows high data
Orthogonal Frequency subcarriers add complex techniques
rate transmission
OFDM- Division Multiplexing – constructively, (e.g., clipping, coding,
with robustness
PAPR Peak-to-Average Power causing high PAPR, companding) to
against
Ratio problem. which reduces power reduce power
multipath fading.
amplifier efficiency. inefficiency.

Orthogonal Frequency High spectral

Different users are
Division Multiple efficiency,
assigned subsets of Requires complex
Access – a multi-user adaptive
OFDMA orthogonal scheduling and
version of OFDM. resource
subcarriers synchronization.
Subcarriers are divided allocation, used
dynamically.
among users. in 4G/5G.
Justify, how cell sectoring reduces co channel interference and

increases the capacity.

Cell Sectoring

Definition:
Cell sectoring is a technique where an omnidirectional antenna at a base station is replaced with
directional antennas, each covering a specific sector (e.g., 120° or 60°) of the cell.

How Cell Sectoring Reduces Co-Channel Interference:

1. Directional Antennas:

o By using directional antennas, the base station transmits and receives signals only
within its sector, instead of the full 360°.

o This reduces the coverage overlap with co-channel cells and limits interference.

2. Fewer Co-channel Interferers:

o In an omnidirectional cell, interference can come from all co-channel cells in every
direction.

o With sectoring, the number of dominant interfering co-channel cells is reduced,

since only those aligned with the antenna beam affect the communication.

3. Improved Signal-to-Interference Ratio (SIR):

o Since fewer co-channel interferers are seen in each sector, the SIR improves, leading
to better call quality.

How Cell Sectoring Increases Capacity:

1. Reduced Cluster Size (N):

o Better SIR allows the system to operate with a smaller cluster size (N).

o A smaller N means the same frequencies can be reused more often across the
network.

2. Higher Frequency Reuse:

o More frequent reuse of frequencies directly translates to higher system capacity

(more simultaneous calls can be handled).

Describe zonal concept with diagram.

Zonal Concept in Cellular Systems

Problem with Sectoring:

• In cell sectoring, directional antennas divide a cell into sectors (e.g., 3 × 120°).
 • Although this reduces co-channel interference, it increases the number of handoffs, since
mobiles moving across sector boundaries require frequent switching.

• This puts additional load on the switching and control links of the mobile system.

Zonal Concept Idea:

• Instead of using a single antenna at the center of a cell, the cell is divided into smaller zones.

• Each zone is served by its own antenna, placed at the edge or corner of the cell.

• The same set of frequencies is used across all zones within that cell.

• As a mobile user moves from one zone to another, the call is simply switched to the antenna
of the new zone, without a complete handoff at the MSC level.

• The zone switch is controlled locally by the base station.

Advantages of Zonal Concept:

1. Reduced Co-channel Interference → since coverage per zone is smaller and more controlled.

2. Better Signal Quality → user always connects to the nearest zone antenna.

3. No New Frequency Allocation Needed → the same cell frequencies are reused across its
zones.

4. Increased System Capacity → by improving frequency reuse and signal quality.

5. No Degradation in Trunking Efficiency → since all zones share the same pool of channels.