Chapter 3 – Human Development
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1. Meaning of Human Development
Development: Progressive changes that occur in an individual from conception to death.
It includes growth (biological changes) and maturation (natural unfolding of abilities).
Development is lifelong, multidimensional, plastic (modifiable), contextual, and
multidirectional (some abilities improve, others decline).
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2. Factors Influencing Development
A. Biological/Hereditary Factors
Genetic makeup (intelligence, temperament, physical structure).
Brain and nervous system development.
Hormonal influences (e.g., puberty).
B. Environmental Factors
Family, school, peers, culture, socioeconomic status.
Nutrition, health facilities, learning opportunities.
C. Interaction of Heredity & Environment
Both work together (nature + nurture).
Example: A child with high genetic intelligence will not reach potential without proper
education.
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3. Life-Span Developmental Stages
Human life is divided into stages. Each stage has physical, cognitive, emotional, and social
changes.
(i) Prenatal Period (Conception to Birth)
Divided into:
Germinal (0–2 weeks),
Embryonic (3–8 weeks),
Foetal (9 weeks–birth).
Critical stage → organ formation, brain development.
Influenced by mother’s health, nutrition, stress, drugs.
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(ii) Infancy (0–2 years)
Rapid growth.
Reflexes (sucking, grasping, rooting).
Development of motor skills (crawling, walking).
Language begins (babbling → first words).
Emotional attachment forms (bond with caregivers).
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(iii) Early Childhood (2–6 years)
Physical growth slows compared to infancy.
Language develops rapidly.
Thinking is egocentric (Piaget’s preoperational stage).
Socialisation begins (play, interaction with peers).
Moral understanding starts (right vs wrong).
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(iv) Middle and Late Childhood (6–12 years)
Steady physical growth, increased strength.
Cognitive: Logical thinking (concrete operational stage).
Schooling plays major role in personality and skills.
Peer group influence increases.
Sense of competence develops (Erikson: industry vs inferiority).
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(v) Adolescence (12–18 years)
Puberty: rapid physical & hormonal changes.
Emotional instability, mood swings.
Abstract and critical thinking emerges (formal operational stage).
Identity formation (Erikson: identity vs role confusion).
Peer pressure strong; independence from parents.
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(vi) Adulthood
Early Adulthood (20–40 years): Career building, relationships, marriage, family
responsibilities.
Middle Adulthood (40–60 years): Stability, productivity, concern for next generation
(generativity vs stagnation).
Late Adulthood (60+ years): Decline in physical health, retirement, adjustment to ageing
(integrity vs despair).
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4. Developmental Tasks (Robert Havighurst)
At each stage, individuals face developmental tasks necessary for healthy growth:
Infancy & Childhood: learning to walk, talk, control elimination, socialisation.
Adolescence: achieving independence, preparing for career, identity formation.
Adulthood: selecting a partner, raising children, achieving social responsibility.
Old Age: adjusting to retirement, declining health, facing death.
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5. Theories of Human Development
(i) Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory
Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs) – sensory & motor exploration.
Preoperational (2–7 yrs) – egocentric thinking, use of symbols.
Concrete Operational (7–12 yrs) – logical thinking, conservation concepts.
Formal Operational (12+ yrs) – abstract, hypothetical reasoning.
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(ii) Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
Development occurs through 8 stages, each with a crisis:
1. Trust vs Mistrust (Infancy)
2. Autonomy vs Shame (Early childhood)
3. Initiative vs Guilt (Preschool)
4. Industry vs Inferiority (School age)
5. Identity vs Role Confusion (Adolescence)
6. Intimacy vs Isolation (Young adult)
7. Generativity vs Stagnation (Middle adult)
8. Integrity vs Despair (Old age)
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(iii) Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Cognitive development shaped by social interaction and culture.
Concept of Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) → difference between what a child can do
alone vs with help.
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(iv) Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory
Pre-conventional Level: obey rules to avoid punishment.
Conventional Level: follow societal norms.
Post-conventional Level: follow universal ethical principles.
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6. Challenges in Development
Poverty, malnutrition, broken families.
Emotional problems, stress, depression in adolescence.
Ageing-related issues (loneliness, health problems).
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7. Summary Table of Stages
Stage Age Key Features
Prenatal Conception–birth Organ development, sensitive to mother’s health
Infancy0–2 yrs Rapid growth, motor skills, attachment
Early Childhood 2–6 yrs Language, play, egocentrism
Middle Childhood 6–12 yrs Logical thinking, schooling, peer groups
Adolescence 12–18 yrs Puberty, identity, independence
Early Adulthood 20–40 yrs Career, marriage, family
Middle Adulthood 40–60 yrs Stability, productivity
Late Adulthood 60+ yrs Decline, retirement, life review
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✅ In short: Human development is a lifelong process influenced by heredity, environment,
and culture. Various psychologists (Piaget, Erikson, Vygotsky, Kohlberg) explained it from
cognitive, social, and moral perspectives. Each stage brings new tasks and challenges,
which shape personality.
