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 techgo

C++ & Python

Tricks and Tips
Welcome back... Having completed our exclusive For Beginners
digital guidebook, we have taught you all you need to master the
basics of your new device, software or hobby.
Yet that’s just the start!

Advancing your skill set is the goal of all users of consumer

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with you at every stage to advise, inform and ultimately
inspire you to go further.
 Contents

Contents
6 Working with Data 54 Loops and Decision Making
8 Lists 56 While Loop
10 Tuples 58 For Loop
12 Dictionaries 60 Do… While Loop
14 Splitting and Joining Strings 62 If Statement
16 Formatting Strings 64 If… Else Statement
18 Date and Time
20 Opening Files
22 Writing to Files
66 Working with Code
24 Exceptions
68 Common Coding Mistakes
26 Python Graphics
70 Beginner Python Mistakes
72 Beginner C++ Mistakes
74 Where Next?
28 Using Modules
30 Calendar Module
32 OS Module
34 Random Module
36 Tkinter Module
38 Pygame Module
42 Create Your Own Modules

44 C++ Input/Output
46 User Interaction
48 Character Literals
50 Defining Constants
52 File Input/Output

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 Contents

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 Working with Data

6 www.bdmpublications.com
Working
with Data
Data is everything. With it you can display,
control, add, remove, create and manipulate
Python to your every demand. Over these
coming pages we look at how you can
create lists, tuples, dictionaries and multi-
dimensional lists; and see how to use them to
forge exciting and useful programs.
Then, you can learn how to use date and time
functions, write to files in your system and
even create graphical user interfaces that take
your coding skills to new levels and into new
project ideas.

www.bdmpublications.com 7
 Working with Data

Lists
Lists are one of the most common types of data structures you will comes across in
Python. A list is simply a collection of items, or data if you prefer, that can be accessed
as a whole, or individually if wanted.

WORKING WITH LISTS

Lists are extremely handy in Python. A list can be strings, integers and also variables. You can even include functions in lists,
and lists within lists.

STEP 1 A list is a sequence of data values called items. You STEP 3 You can also access, or index, the last item in a list by
create the name of your list followed by an equals using the minus sign before the item number [-1],
sign, then square brackets and the items separated by commas; or the second to last item with [-2] and so on. Trying to reference an
note that strings use quotes: item that isn’t in the list, such as [10] will return an error:
numbers = [1, 4, 7, 21, 98, 156] numbers[-1]
mythical_creatures – [“Unicorn”, “Balrog”, mythical_creatures[-4]
“Vampire”, “Dragon”, “Minotaur”]

STEP 2 Once you’ve defined your list you can call each STEP 4 Slicing is similar to indexing but you can retrieve
by referencing its name, followed by a number. Lists multiple items in a list by separating item numbers
start the first item entry as 0, followed by 1, 2, 3 and so on. with a colon. For example:
For example:
numbers[1:3]
numbers
Will output the 4 and 7, being item numbers 1 and 2. Note that the
To call up the entire contents of the list. returned values don’t include the second index position (as you
would numbers[1:3] to return 4, 7 and 21).
numbers[3]
To call the third from zero item in the list (21 in this case).

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 Lists

STEP 5 You can update items within an existing list, remove STEP 8 You can view what can be done with lists by entering
items and even join lists together. For example, to dir(list) into the Shell. The output is the available
join two lists you can use: functions, for example, insert and pop are used to add and remove
items at certain positions. To insert the number 62 at item index 4:
everything = numbers + mythical_creatures
numbers.insert(4, 62)
Then view the combined list with:
To remove it:
everything
numbers.pop(4)

STEP 6 Items can be added to a list by entering: STEP 9 You also use the list function to break a string down
into its components. For example:
numbers=numbers+[201]
list(“David”)
Or for strings:
Breaks the name David into ‘D’, ‘a’, ‘v’, ‘i’, ‘d’. This can then be passed
mythical_creatres=mythical_creatures+[“Griffin”]
to a new list:
Or by using the append function:
name=list(“David Hayward”)
mythical_creatures.append(“Nessie”) name
numbers.append(278) age=[44]
user = name + age
user

STEP 7 Removal of items can be done in two ways. The first STEP 10 Based on that, you can create a program to store
is by the item number: someone’s name and age as a list:
del numbers[7] name=input(“What’s your name? “)
lname=list(name)
Alternatively, by item name:
age=int(input(“How old are you: “))
mythical_creatures.remove(“Nessie”) lage=[age]
user = lname + lage
The combined name and age list is called user, which can be called
by entering user into the Shell. Experiment and see what you can do.

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i-Tech Special - Volume 28 9
 Working with Data

Tuples
Tuples are very much identical to lists. However, where lists can be updated, deleted or
changed in some way, a tuple remains a constant. This is called immutable and they’re
perfect for storing fixed data items.

THE IMMUTABLE TUPLE

Reasons for having tuples vary depending on what the program is intended to do. Normally, a tuple is reserved for something
special but they’re also used for example, in an adventure game, where non-playing character names are stored.

STEP 1 A tuple is created the same way as a list but in this STEP 3 You can create grouped tuples into lists that contain
instance you use curved brackets instead of square multiple sets of data. For instance, here is a tuple
brackets. For example: called NPC (Non-Playable Characters) containing the character name
and their combat rating for an adventure game:
months=(“January”, “February”, “March”, “April”,
“May”, “June”) NPC=[(“Conan”, 100), (“Belit”, 80), (“Valeria”,
months 95)]

STEP 2 Just as with lists, the items within a named tuple can STEP 4 Each of these data items can be accessed as a
be indexed according to their position in the data whole by entering NPC into the Shell; or they can be
range, i.e.: indexed according to their position NPC[0]. You can also index the
individual tuples within the NPC list:
months[0]
months[5] NPC[0][1]
However, any attempt at deleting or adding to the tuple will result Will display 100.
in an error in the Shell.

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 Tuples

STEP 5 It’s worth noting that when referencing multiple STEP 8 Now unpack the tuple into two
tuples within a list, the indexing is slightly different corresponding variables:
from the norm. You would expect the 95 combat rating of the
(name, combat_rating)=NPC
character Valeria to be NPC[4][5], but it’s not. It’s actually:
You can now check the values by entering name and combat_rating.
NPC[2][1]

STEP 6 This means of course that the indexing follows thus: STEP 9 Remember, as with lists, you can also index tuples
using negative numbers which count backwards
0 1, 1
from the end of the data list. For our example, using the tuple with
0, 0 2
multiple data items, you would reference the Valeria character with:
0, 1 2, 0
1 2,1 NPC[2][-0]
1, 0
Which as you can imagine, gets a little confusing when you’ve got a
lot of tuple data to deal with.

STEP 7 Tuples though utilise a feature called unpacking, STEP 10 You can use the max and min functions to find the
where the data items stored within a tuple are highest and lowest values of a tuple composed of
assigned variables. First create the tuple with two items (name and numbers. For example:
combat rating):
numbers=(10.3, 23, 45.2, 109.3, 6.1, 56.7, 99)
NPC=(“Conan”, 100)
The numbers can be integers and floats. To output the highest and
lowest, use:
print(max(numbers))
print(min(numbers))

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i-Tech Special - Volume 28 11
 Working with Data

Dictionaries
Lists are extremely useful but dictionaries in Python are by far the more technical way
of dealing with data items. They can be tricky to get to grips with at first but you’ll soon
be able to apply them to your own code.

KEY PAIRS
A dictionary is like a list but instead each data item comes as a pair, these are known as Key and Value. The Key part must be
unique and can either be a number or string whereas the Value can be any data item you like.

STEP 1 Let’s say you want to create a phonebook in Python. STEP 3 As with lists and tuples, you can check the contents
You would create the dictionary name and enter of a dictionary by giving the dictionary a name:
the data in curly brackets, separating the key and value by a colon phonebook, in this example. This will display the data items you’ve
Key:Value. For example: entered in a similar fashion to a list, which you’re no doubt familiar
with by now.
phonebook={“Emma”: 1234, “Daniel”: 3456, “Hannah”:
6789}

STEP 2 Just as with most lists, tuples and so on, strings STEP 4 The benefit of using a dictionary is that you
need be enclosed in quotes (single or double), can enter the key to index the value. Using the
whilst integers can be left open. Remember that the value can be phonebook example from the previous steps, you can enter:
either a string or an integer, you just need to enclose the relevant
phonebook[“Emma”]
one in quotes:
phonebook[“Hannah”]
phonebook2={“David”: “0987 654 321”}

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 Dictionaries

STEP 5 Adding to a dictionary is easy too. You can include STEP 8 Next, you need to define the user inputs and
a new data item entry by adding the new key and variables: one for the person’s name, the other
value items like: for their phone number (let’s keep it simple to avoid lengthy
Python code):
phonebook[“David”] = “0987 654 321”
phonebook name=input(“Enter name: “)
number=int(input(“Enter phone number: “))

STEP 6 You can also remove items from a dictionary by STEP 9 Note we’ve kept the number as an integer instead
issuing the del command followed by the item’s of a string, even though the value can be both
key; the value will be removed as well, since both work as a pair of an integer or a string. Now you need to add the user’s inputted
data items: variables to the newly created blank dictionary. Using the same
process as in Step 5, you can enter:
del phonebook[“David”]
phonebook[name] = number

STEP 7 Taking this a step further, how about creating a STEP 10 Now when you save and execute the code, Python
piece of code that will ask the user for the dictionary will ask for a name and a number. It will then insert
key and value items? Create a new Editor instance and start by those entries into the phonebook dictionary, which you can test by
coding in a new, blank dictionary: entering into the Shell:
phonebook={} phonebook
phonebook[“David”]
If the number needs to contain spaces you need to make it a string,
so remove the int part of the input.

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i-Tech Special - Volume 28 13
 Working with Data

Splitting and
Joining Strings
When dealing with data in Python, especially from a user’s input, you will undoubtedly
come across long sets of strings. A useful skill to learn in Python programming is being
able to split those long strings for better readability.

STRING THEORIES
You’ve already looked at some list functions, using .insert, .remove, and .pop but there are also functions that can be applied
to strings.

STEP 1 The main tool in the string function arsenal is .split(). STEP 3 Note that the text.split part has the brackets,
With it you’re able to split apart a string of data, quotes, then a space followed by closing quotes
based on the argument within the brackets. For example, here’s a and brackets. The space is the separator, indicating that each list
string with three items, each separated by a space: item entry is separated by a space. Likewise, CSV (Comma Separated
Value) content has a comma, so you’d use:
text=”Daniel Hannah Emma”
text=”January,February,March,April,May,June”
months=text.split(“,”)
months

STEP 2 Now let’s turn the string into a list and split the STEP 4 You’ve previously seen how you can split a string
content accordingly: into individual letters as a list, using a name:
names=text.split(“ “) name=list(“David”)
name
Then enter the name of the new list, names, to see the three items.
The returned value is ‘D’, ‘a’, ‘v’, ‘i’, ‘d’. Whilst it may seem a little
useless under ordinary circumstances, it could be handy for creating
a spelling game for example.

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 Splitting and Joining Strings

STEP 5 The opposite of the .split function is .join, where STEP 8 As with the .split function, the separator doesn’t
you will have separate items in a string and can join have to be a space, it can also be a comma, a full
them all together to form a word or just a combination of items, stop, a hyphen or whatever you like:
depending on the program you’re writing. For instance:
colours=[“Red”, “Green”, “Blue”]
alphabet=””.join([“a”,”b”,”c”,”d”,”e”]) col=”,”.join(colours)
alphabet col
This will display ‘abcde’ in the Shell.

STEP 6 You can therefore apply .join to the separated name STEP 9 There’s some interesting functions you apply to a
you made in Step 4, combining the letters again to string, such as .capitalize and .title. For example:
form the name:
title=”conan the cimmerian”
name=””.join(name) title.capitalize()
name title.title()
We’ve joined the string back together, and retained the list called
name, passing it through the .join function.

STEP 7 A good example of using the .join function is when STEP 10 You can also use logic operators on strings,
you have a list of words you want to combine into with the ‘in’ and ‘not in’ functions. These enable
a sentence: you to check if a string contains (or does not contain) a sequence
of characters:
list=[“Conan”, “raised”, “his”, “mighty”, “sword”,
“and”, “struck”, “the”, “demon”] message=”Have a nice day”
text=” “.join(list) “nice” in message
text
”bad” not in message
Note the space between the quotes before the .join function (where “day” not in message
there were no spaces in the Step 6’s join) “night” in message

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i-Tech Special - Volume 28 15
 Working with Data

Formatting Strings
When you work with data, creating lists, dictionaries and objects you may often want
to print out the results. Merging strings with data is easy especially with Python 3, as
earlier versions of Python tended to complicate matters.

STRING FORMATTING
Since Python 3, string formatting has become a much neater process, using the .format function combined with curly brackets.
It’s a more logical and better formed approach than previous versions.

STEP 1 The basic formatting in Python is to call each STEP 3 You can of course also include integers into the mix:
variable into the string using the curly brackets:
number=10000
name=”Conan” print(“{} of {} was a skilled mercenary,
print(“The barbarian hero of the Hyborian Age is: and thief too. He once stole {} gold from a
{}”.format(name)) merchant.”.format(name, place, number))

STEP 2 Remember to close the print function with two sets STEP 4 There are many different ways to apply string
of brackets, as you’ve encased the variable in one, formatting, some are quite simple, as we’ve shown
and the print function in another. You can include multiple cases of you here; others can be significantly more complex. It all depends
string formatting in a single print function: on what you want from your program. A good place to reference
frequently regarding string formatting is the Python Docs webpage,
name=”Conan”
found at www.docs.python.org/3.1/library/string.html. Here, you
place=”Cimmeria”
will find tons of help.
print(“{} hailed from the North, in a cold land
known as {}”.format(name, place))

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 Formatting Strings

STEP 5 Interestingly you can reference a list using the string STEP 8 You can also print out the content of a user’s input
formatting function. You need to place an asterisk in in the same fashion:
front of the list name:
name=input(“What’s your name? “)
numbers=1, 3, 45, 567546, 3425346345 print(“Hello {}.”.format(name)
print(“Some numbers: {}, {}, {}, {}, {}”.
format(*numbers))

STEP 6 With indexing in lists, the same applies to calling a STEP 9 You can extend this simple code example to display
list using string formatting. You can index each item the first letter in a person’s entered name:
according to its position (from 0 to however many are present):
name=input(“What’s your name? “)
numbers=1, 4, 7, 9 print(“Hello {}.”.format(name))
print(“More numbers: {3}, {0}, {2}, lname=list(name)
{1}.”.format(*numbers)) print(“The first letter of your name is a {0}”.
format(*lname))

STEP 7 And as you probably suspect, you can mix strings STEP 10 You can also call upon a pair of lists and reference
and integers in a single list to be called in the them individually within the same print function.
.format function: Looking back the code from Step 7, you can alter it with:
characters=[“Conan”, “Belit”, “Valeria”, 19, 27, names=[“Conan”, “Belit”, “Valeria”]
20] ages=[25, 21, 22]
print (“{0} is {3} years old. Whereas {1} is {4}
Creating two lists. Now you can call each list, and individual items:
years old.”.format(*characters))
print(“{0[0]} is {1[0]} years old. Whereas {0[1]}
is {1[1]} years old.”.format(names, ages))

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i-Tech Special - Volume 28 17
 Working with Data

Date and Time

When working with data it’s often handy to have access to the time. For example, you
may want to time-stamp an entry or see at what time a user logged into the system and
for how long. Luckily acquiring the date and time is easy, thanks to the Time module.

TIME LORDS
The time module contains functions that help you retrieve the current system time, reads the date from strings, formats the
time and date and much more.

STEP 1 First you need to import the time module. It’s one STEP 3 You can see the structure of how time is presented
that’s built-in to Python 3 so you shouldn’t need to by entering:
drop into a command prompt and pip install it. Once it’s imported,
time.local.time()
you can call the current time and date with a simple command:
The output is displayed as such: ‘time.struct_time(tm_
import time
year=2017, tm_mon=9, tm_mday=7, tm_hour=9,
time.asctime()
tm_min=6, tm_sec=13, tm_wday=3, tm_yday=250, tm_
isdst=0)’; obviously dependent on your current time as opposed
to the time shown above.

STEP 2 The time function is split into nine tuples, these are STEP 4 There are numerous functions built into the time
divided up into indexed items, as with any other module. One of the most common of these is
tuple, and shown in the screen shot below. .strftime(). With it, you’re able to present a wide range of arguments
as it converts the time tuple into a string. For example, to display the
current day of the week you can use:
time.strftime(‘%A’)

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est

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geworden Tisameni zu

brauchen

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hos 1887 Eleorum

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4 jetzt
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meisten

Author

memorat

etiam ejus hin

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posita Antiocho ludis

das pervetus prœlio

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Cenchreæ Tertium XXXIV

Neoptolemea

hinausgehen At

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pugnarunt 6

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initio mala congruunt

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Lacedæmoniis CAPUT

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memoriam den

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Die beginnen wahrhaft

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tabulis

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