St.

Mary’s University
Faculty of xxxxxx
Department of xxxx
December, 2024

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 Introduction
What is SQL?
SQL stands for Structured Query Language

SQL lets you access and manipulate databases

SQL became a standard of the American National

Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1986, and of the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in
1987
•

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 Introduction
Using SQL commands?
create new databases
create new tables in a database
create stored procedures in a database
create views in a database
set permissions on tables, procedures, and views
execute queries against a database
retrieve data from a database
insert records in a database
update records in a database
delete records from a database

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 Elements of data base
Structured Query Language
1. Tables
✔ In relational database systems (DBS) data are
represented using tables (relations).
✔ table is uniquely identified by its name and consists of
rows that contain the stored information
✔ each row containing exactly one tuple (or record).
✔ A table can have one or more columns. A column is
made up of a column name and a data type, and it
describes an attribute of the tuples.

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 Commands
These commands can be classified into groups based on
their nature:
DDL - Data Definition Language:

DML - Data Manipulation Language:

DCL - Data Control Language:

DQL - Data Query Language:

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 DDL
Commands and Description of DDL
1) CREATE Creates a new table, a view of a table, or
other object in database
2) ALTER Modifies an existing database object, such as
a table.
3) DROP Deletes an entire table, a view of a table or
other object in the database.

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 DML
Commands and Description
1) INSERT Creates a record

2) UPDATE Modifies records

3) DELETE Deletes records

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 DCL
Commands and Description
1) GRANT Gives a privilege to user

2) REVOKE Takes back privileges granted from user

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 SQL Commands:
The standard SQL commands to interact with
relational databases are
CREATE,
SELECT,
INSERT,
UPDATE,
DELETE and
DROP.
These commands areclassified into groups based on
their nature:

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 Purpose Of SQL
Why SQL?
Because SQL Allows users
to access data in relational database management
systems.
to describe the data.
to define the data in database and manipulate that data.
to embed within other languages using SQL modules,
libraries & pre-compilers.
to create and drop databases and tables.
to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
to set permissions on tables, procedures and views

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 DQL - Data Query Language:
Data Query Language:

Command and Description

1) SELECT Retrieves certain records from one or more

tables

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 SELECT…
The SQL SELECT Statement
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name;

❖ Here, column1, column2, ... are the field names of the table
you want to select data from.
❖ The table_name represents the name of the table you want to
select data from.

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 SELECT…
Syntax

SELECT column_names
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition];

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 SELECT…
Example

SELECT * FROM Customers;

__________//______
SELECT * FROM product
WHERE p_name = ‘Cake';
__________//______
SELECT p_name, price
FROM product;

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 SELECT…
Subqueries (nested query)
A query result can also be used in a condition of a where
clause.
SELECT ENAME, SAL
FROM EMP WHERE EMPNO in
(SELECT PMGR FROM PROJECT
WHERE PSTART < ’31-DEC-90’) AND DEPTNO =20;

List the name and salary of employees of the department 20

who are leading a project that started before December 31,
1990:

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 SELECT…
Subqueries (nested query)

SELECT ∗ FROM EMP

WHERE DEPTNO IN
(SELECT DEPTNO FROM DEPT
WHERE LOC = ’BOSTON’);

List all employees who are working in a department

located in BOSTON:

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 SELECT…
Subqueries (nested query)

SELECT ∗ FROM EMP

WHERE SAL >= ANY
(SELECT SAL FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO = 30) AND DEPTNO = 10;

Retrieve all employees who are working in

department 10 and who earn at least as much as any
(i.e., at least one) employee working in department
30:

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 SELECT…
Subqueries (nested query)

Example
SELECT ∗ FROM EMP
WHERE SAL > ALL
(SELECT SAL FROM EMP
WHERE DEPTNO = 30) AND DEPTNO <> 30;

List all employees who are not working in department 30

and who earn more than all employees working in
department 30:

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 SELECT…
SQL Aliases
• SQL aliases are used to give a table, or a column in a
table, a temporary name.
• Aliases are often used to make column names more
readable.
• An alias only exists for the duration of that query.
• An alias is created with the AS keyword.

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 SELECT…
SQL Aliases

Syntax
SELECT column_name AS alias_name
FROM table_name;

SELECT CustomerID AS ID
FROM Customers;

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 SELECT…
Grouping
Syntax

SELECT <column(s)>
FROM <table(s)>
WHERE <condition>
GROUP BY <group column(s)>
[HAVING <group condition(s)>];

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 SELECT…
Grouping
Example

SELECT Department, sum(Salary) AS Salary

FROM employee
GROUP BY department
HAVING SUM (Salary) >= 50000;

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 SELECT…
Grouping
Example

SELECT Department, sum(Salary) AS Salary

FROM employee
GROUP BY department
HAVING SUM (Salary) >= 50000;

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 SELECT…

The SQL Join Clause…

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 SQL JOIN
SQL JOIN
• A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or
more tables, based on a related column between
them.
• Different Types of SQL JOINs
INNER JOIN:
LEFT (OUTER) JOIN:
RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN
FULL (OUTER) JOIN:

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 INNER JOIN…
1. INNER JOIN:
Returns records that have matching values in both tables

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FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

INNER JOIN…

Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

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 INNER JOIN…
Example
Join Products and Categories with the INNER JOIN keyword:

SELECT ProductID, ProductName, CategoryName

FROM Products
INNER JOIN Categories ON Products.CategoryID =
Categories.CategoryID;
The INNER JOIN keyword returns only rows with a match in both tables. Which means
that if you have a product with no CategoryID, or with a CategoryID that is not present in
the Categories table, that record would not be returned in the result.

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 INNER JOIN…
CategoryID CategoryName Description
1 Beverages Soft drinks, coffees,
teas, beers, and ales
2 Condiments Sweet and savory
sauces, relishes,

3
End….
Confections
spreads, and seasonings
Desserts, candies, and
sweet breads

ProductID ProductName CategoryID Price

1 Chais 1 18
2 Chang 1 19
3 Aniseed Syrup 2 10
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 INNER JOIN…

ProductID ProductName CategoryName

39 Chartreuse verte Beverages
2 Chang Beverages
24 Guaraná Fantástica Beverages
34 Sasquatch Ale Beverages
35 Steeleye Stout Beverages
1 Chais Beverages
38 Côte de Blaye Beverages

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 LEFT (OUTER) JOIN
2. LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the
matched records from the right table

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 LEFT (OUTER) JOIN…
Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left table (table1), and the
matching records from the right table (table2). The result is 0 records from
the right side, if there is no match.

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 LEFT (OUTER) JOIN…
Example

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID =
Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

The LEFT JOIN keyword returns all records from the left
table (Customers), even if there are no matches in the right
table (Orders).
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 OrderID
LEFT
CustomerID
(OUTER)
EmployeeID
JOIN…
OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

CustomerI Custom Contact Address City PostalC Country

D erName Name ode
1 Alfreds Maria Obere Berlin 12209 German
Futterkis Anders Str. 57 y
te
2 Ana Ana Avda. México 05021 Mexico
Trujillo Trujillo de la D.F.
Empare Constitu
dados y ción
helados 2222
321/12/2024 Antonio Antonio Matader
SMU México 05023
Course Name Mexico 34
 LEFT (OUTER) JOIN…
CustomerName OrderID
Alfreds Futterkiste
Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 10308
Antonio Moreno Taquería 10365
Around the Horn 10383
Around the Horn 10355
Berglunds snabbköp 10278
Berglunds snabbköp 10280
Berglunds snabbköp 10384
Blauer See Delikatessen
Blondel père et fils 10360
Blondel père et fils 10297
Blondel père et fils 10436
Blondel père et fils 10265
Bólido Comidas preparadas 10326
Bon app' 10331
Bon app' 10340
Bon app' 10362

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 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN
3. RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and the matched
records from the left table

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 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: …
Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right table (table2), and the
matching records from the left table (table1). The result is 0 records from the left side,
if there is no match.

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 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: …
Example

SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.LastName,

Employees.FirstName
FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID =
Employees.EmployeeID
ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;

The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from the right
table (Employees), even if there are no matches in the left
table (Orders).
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 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: …
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo

1 Davolio Nancy 12/8/1968 EmpID1.pic
2 Fuller Andrew 2/19/1952 EmpID2.pic
3 Leverling Janet 8/30/1963 EmpID3.pic

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 RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: …

OrderID LastName FirstName

West Adam
10248 Buchanan Steven
10249 Suyama Michael
10250 Peacock Margaret
10251 Leverling Janet
10252 Peacock Margaret
10253 Leverling Janet
10254 Buchanan Steven

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 FULL (OUTER) JOIN
4. FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in either left or
right table

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 FULL (OUTER) JOIN…
Syntax
• SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;

• The RIGHT JOIN keyword returns all records from

the right table (Employees), even if there are no
matches in the left table (Orders).
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 FULL (OUTER) JOIN…
Example
The following SQL statement selects all customers, and all orders:
SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID
FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

The FULL OUTER JOIN keyword returns all matching records from both tables
whether the other table matches or not. So, if there are rows in "Customers"
that do not have matches in "Orders", or if there are rows in "Orders" that do
not have matches in "Customers", those rows will be listed as well.

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 FULL (OUTER) JOIN…
OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

Custome Custome ContactN Address City PostalCo Country

rID rName ame de
1 Alfreds Maria Obere Berlin 12209 Germany
Futterkist Anders Str. 57
e
2 Ana Ana Avda. de México 05021 Mexico
Trujillo Trujillo la D.F.
Empared Constituc
ados y ión 2222
helados
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3 Antonio Antonio Matadero México 05023 Mexico
 FULL (OUTER) JOIN…

CustomerName OrderID
Null 10309
Null 10310
Alfreds Futterkiste Null
Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados 10308
Antonio Moreno Taquería Null

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 SQL JOIN

End….

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 SQL CREATE …
SQL CREATE DATABASE Statement

The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a

new SQL database.

Syntax

CREATE DATABASE databasename;

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 SQL CREATE …
The SQL CREATE TABLE Statement
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new
table in a database.
Syntax
CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
....
);

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 SQL CREATE …
SQL DROP Database Statement
Following are the important points to remember
before you delete an existing database −
Make sure you have taken proper backup of thew
database before you delete it.
Make sure no other application is connected and
using this database.
Make sure you have the necessary privilege to delete
the database. Usually an admin can delete the
databaase.

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 SQL CREATE …
SQL DROP Database Statement
Syntax
DROP DATABASE DatabaseName;

Or

DROP DATABASE IF EXISTS DatabaseName;

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 SQL CREATE …
Syntax
CREATE TABLE <table> (
<column 1> <DATA TYPE> [not null] [UNIQUE] [<column
CONSTRAINT>],
.........
<column n> <DATA TYPE> [NOT NULL] [UNIQUE]
[<column CONSTRAINT>],
[<TABLE CONSTRAINT(S)>]
);

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 SQL CREATE …
Example

CREATE TABLE PERSONS (

PersonID INT,
LastName VARCHAR(255),
FirstName VARCHAR(255),
Address VARCHAR(255),
City VARCHAR(255)
);

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 SQL CREATE …
Example

CREATE TABLE EMP (

EMPNO NUMBER(4) NOT NULL,
ENAME VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL,
JOB VARCHAR2(10),
MGR NUMBER(4),
HIREDATE DATE,
SAL NUMBER(7,2),
DEPTNO NUMBER(2)
);

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 SQL Delete Table
The SQL DROP Table Statement
The SQL DROP TABLE statement is a Data Definition Language (DDL) command that is
used to remove a table's definition, and its data, indexes, triggers, constraints and
permission specifications (if any).
Note −
You should be very careful while using this command because once a table is deleted
then all the information available in that table will also be lost forever.
If the table is partitioned, the statement removes the table definition, all its
partitions, all data stored in those partitions, and all partition definitions.
To drop a table in a database, one must require ALTER permission on the said table
and CONTROL permissions on the table schema.
Even though it is a data definition language command, it is different from TRUNCATE
TABLE statement as the DROP statement completely frees the table from the
memory.
DROP TABLE causes an implicit commit, except when used with the TEMPORARY
keyword.

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 SQL Delete Table
Difference b/w DROP and TRUNCATE statements
When you use the drop statement it deletes the table's row
together with the table's definition so all the relationships of
that table with other tables will no longer be valid.
When you drop a table:
Table structure will be dropped
Relationship will be dropped
Integrity constraints will be dropped
Access privileges will also be dropped
On the other hand when we TRUNCATE a table, the table
structure remains the same, so you will not face any of the
above problems.

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 SQL Delete Table
The SQL DROP Table Statement
Syntax
DROP TABLE table_name;
Or
DROP TABLE [IF EXISTS] table_name;

TRUNCATE TABLE employee;

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 SQL Delete Table
SQL TRUNCATE TABLE
A truncate SQL statement is used to remove all
rows (complete data) from a table.
It is similar to the DELETE statement with no
WHERE clause.
Syntax
TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

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 DELETE and TRUNCATE
• There is a slight difference b/w delete and
truncate statement.
• The DELETE statement only deletes the rows from
the table based on the condition defined by
WHERE clause or delete all the rows from the
table when condition is not specified.
• But it does not free the space containing by the
table.
• The TRUNCATE statement: it is used to delete all
the rows from the table and free the containing
space.

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 DROP COLUMN
ALTER TABLE − DROP COLUMN
• If you need to drop an existing column from a table,
you should use the DROP COLUMN option along with
ALTER TABLE statement as shown below.
Syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN
column_name;
• ALTER TABLE customers DROP COLUMN SEX;

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 SQL DELETE TABLE
SQL DELETE TABLE
• The DELETE statement is used to delete rows from a
table. If you want to remove a specific row from a
table you should use WHERE condition.
• Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];

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 Constraints
Following are commonly used constraints available in SQL:
NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.
DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is
specified.
UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.
PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.
FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database
table.
CHECK Constraint: The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column
satisfy certain conditions.
INDEX: Use to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

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 Constraints
CREATE TABLE table_name
(column_1 data_type_1,
column_2 data_type_2, ...
PRIMARY KEY (columns) );

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 Constraints
CREATE TABLE table_name
(column_1 data_type_1,
column_2 data_type_2, ...
PRIMARY KEY (columns) );

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 Constraints

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS

( ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2) DEFAULT 5000.00,
PRIMARY KEY (ID) );
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 Constraints
Drop Default Constraint:
To drop a DEFAULT constraint, use the
following SQL:
ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS
ALTER COLUMN SALARY DROP DEFAULT;

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
• It is used to insert a single or a multiple
records in a table.
• There are two ways to insert data in a table:
1. By SQL insert into statement
By specifying column names
Without specifying column names
2. By SQL insert into select statement

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 Constraints
FOREIGN Key:
Example:
Consider the structure of the two tables as follows:
CUSTOMERS table:
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL, ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID) );

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 Constraints
FOREIGN Key:
Example:
ORDERS table:
CREATE TABLE ORDERS (
ID INT NOT NULL,
DATE DATETIME,
CUSTOMER_ID INT references CUSTOMERS(ID),
AMOUNT double,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

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 Constraints
FOREIGN Key:
Example:
If ORDERS table has already been created, and the foreign key
has not yet been set, use the syntax for specifying a foreign key
by altering a table.

ALTER TABLE ORDERS ADD FOREIGN KEY (Customer_ID)

REFERENCES CUSTOMERS (ID);

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 Constraints
FOREIGN Key:
Example:
DROP a FOREIGN KEY Constraint:
To drop a FOREIGN KEY constraint, use the following SQL:

ALTER TABLE ORDERS

DROP FOREIGN KEY;

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 Constraints
CHECK Constraint:
The CHECK Constraint enables a condition to check
the value being entered into a record.

If the condition evaluates to false, the record violates

the constraint and isn’t entered into the table.

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 Constraints
CHECK Constraint:
For example,
the following SQL creates a new table
called CUSTOMERS and adds five
columns.
Here, we add a CHECK with AGE column,
so that you can not have any CUSTOMER
below 18 years:
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 Constraints
CHECK Constraint:
CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(
ID INT NOT NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,
AGE INT NOT NULL CHECK (AGE >= 18),
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);

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 Constraints
CHECK Constraint:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS MODIFY AGE INT NOT NULL CHECK

(AGE >= 18 );

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
SQL INSERT STATEMENT
• It is used to insert a single or a multiple records in
a table.
• There are two ways to insert data in a table:
1. By SQL insert into statement
1) By specifying column names
2) Without specifying column names
2. By SQL insert into select statement

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
1. Inserting data directly into a table
• You can insert a row in the table by using SQL
INSERT INTO command.
There are two ways to insert values in a table.
I. In the first method there is no need to
specify the column name where the
data will be inserted, you need only
their values.
– INSERT INTO table_name
– VALUES (value1, value2, value3....);

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
II. The second method specifies both the column name and
values which you want to insert.
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3....)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3.....);
Example
1. INSERT INTO STUDENTS (ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE, CITY)
VALUES (1, ABHIRAM, 22, ALLAHABAD);
2. INSERT INTO STUDENTS (ROLL_NO, NAME, AGE, CITY)
VALUES (2, ALKA, 20, GHAZIABAD);

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
2) Inserting data through SELECT Statement
Syntax
INSERT INTO table_name
[(column1, column2, .... column)]
SELECT column1, column2, .... Column N
FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
Note: when you add a new row, you should make sure that data type of the
value and the column should be matched.

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
Copy all columns from one table to another table:

INSERT INTO table2

SELECT * FROM table1
WHERE condition;

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
Copy only some columns from one table into another
table:

INSERT INTO table2 (column1, column2, column3, ...)

SELECT column1, column2, column3, ...
FROM table1
WHERE condition;

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 SQL INSERT STATEMENT
Example
Copy "Suppliers" into "Customers" (the columns that are
not filled with data, will contain NULL):

INSERT INTO Customers (CustomerName, City, Country)

SELECT SupplierName, City, Country FROM Suppliers;

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