Transmission media

In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path

between transmitter and receiver.

Transmission media carries the information from sender to receiver. We use

different types of cables or waves to transmit data. Data is transmitted normally
through electrical or electromagnetic signals.

An electrical signal is in the form of current. An electromagnetic signal is series

of electromagnetic energy pulses at various frequencies. These signals can be
transmitted through copper wires, optical fibers, atmosphere, water and vacuum.
Transmission media is also called Communication channel.

Criteria for selection of Transmission Media

Different Media’s have different properties like bandwidth, delay, cost and ease of
installation and maintenance. The data transmission capabilities of various Media
vary depending upon the various factors. These factors are: 1. Type of Media (Wired
or Wireless).

2. Flexibility. In order to expand network.

3. Bandwidth. It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. Higher

bandwidth communication channels support higher data rates.

4. Reliability. The consistency of transmission media (effect of weather conditions).

5. Radiation. It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to undesirable
electrical characteristics of the medium.

6. Noise Absorption. It refers to the susceptibility of the media to external electrical

noise that can cause distortion of data signal.

7. Attenuation. It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards. The

amount of energy lost depends on frequency.

8. Number of receivers. The number of users to be connected.

9. Transmission Rate.

10. Cost and Ease of Installation.

11. Distances, etc.

Types of Transmission Media

1. Guided Media: Cable Characteristics, Types of Cable-Twisted Pair Cable, Co-axial
Cable, Fiber Optic Cable.

2. Unguided media: Types of Communication Band, Microwave Communication,

Radio-wave Communication, Satellite Communication, Infrared Communication.

1. Guided Media (Wired)

In a Guided transmission media the signals are sent through to a specific (solid) path
using wire or cable. Guided media are made up of copper conductor bounded by
jacket (insulation) material. Guided media is used high speed, good security and low
cast requirements. Guided media is used in point to point communication.

Guided media are further divided in three Types.

1. Twisted Pairs Cable

2. Coaxial Cable

3. Fiber Optics Cable

1. Twisted Pair cable

The least expensive and most widely used guided transmission medium.
 It is lightweight, cheap, can be installed easily, and they support many different
types of network.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.

Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by wrapping
them in a tough protective sheath.

Over longer distances, cables may contain hundreds of pairs.

Twisted pair (TP) maybe used to transmit both analog and digital signal.

For analog signals amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 kms. For digital
signals repeaters are required every 2 to 3kms.

Why twist a cable?

The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk (EMI) interference between adjacent
pairs in a cable.

Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different twist lengths to

reduce the crosstalk interference.

On long-distance links, the twist length typically varies from 5 to 15

Fig: Twisted pair cable

Application:-

1. It is the most commonly used medium of telephone n/w.

2. In the telephone system individual residential telephone sets are connected to the
local telephone exchange or to end office by twisted pair wire.
3. Twisted pair also the most common medium used for the digital signaling for
connections to a digital data switch.

4. It is also commonly used within a building for LAN.

There are two types of twisted pair:-

A. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

B. Shielded twisted pair (STP).

A. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):-

Usually consists of two copper wires wrapped in individual plastic insulation.

UTP cables are the most common telecommunications medium.

The frequency range of the twisted pair cables enable both voice and data
transmission.

UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ11
connector and 4 pair cable useRJ-45 connector.

There are five categories of UTPs:

Category 1:- These originally used only for voice communication and can support
only low data rates.

Category 2:- Suitable for Voice and Data gives speed upto 4 mbps. This can’t be
used for high speed data communication. Older n/w’s use this category.

Category 3:- It is suitable for most PC n/w’s support data rate of up to 16mbps
currently most telephone n/w uses this.

Category 4:- It offers data rate up to 20mbps.

Category 5:-It offers data rate of 100mbps. Can be used for fast Ethernet. It
requires more insulation and more twist per foot. It requires compatible equipment’s

Advantages:
 Installation is easy

Flexible

Cheap

It has high speed capacity,

100-meter limit

Higher grades of UTP are used in LAN technologies like Ethernet. Disadvantages:

Bandwidth is low when compared with Coaxial Cable

Provides less protection from interference (EMI).

2. Shielded twisted pair (STP).

The only difference between STP and UTP is that STP cables have a shielding in
usually of aluminum or polyester material between the outer jacket and wire.

The shield makes STP less vulnerable to EMI, because the shield is electrically
grounded.

The metal mesh around the insulated wires eliminates crosstalk.

Crosstalk occurs when one line picks up some of the other signals traveling down
another line.

Advantages:

Easy to install

Performance is adequate

Can be used for Analog or Digital transmission

Increases the signaling rate

Higher capacity than unshielded twisted pair

Eliminates crosstalk Disadvantages:

Difficult to manufacture

Heavy
 Expensive than UTP

2. Co-axial cable

The name coaxial is because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each
other and share common axis.

Inner conductor is made of copper which is surrounded by PVC insulation.

The outer conductor is metal foil, mesh or both.

Outer metallic conductor is used as a shield against noise.

The outer conductor is also encased in an insulating sheath.

The outermost part is the plastic cover which protects the whole cable.

Co-axial cable is much less susceptible to interference and cross talk than the
twisted pair.

Co-axial cable is used to transmit both analog and digital signal.

Application –

Co-axial cable is widely used in the wide variety of applications. The most important
of these are: -
1. TV distribution: - Co-axial cable is spreading rapidly as a means of distributing TV
signals to individual homes –cables TV. A cable TV system can carry dozens or even
hundreds of TV channels at ranges up to a few tens of miles.

2. Long distance telephone transmission:- Co-axial cable has traditionally been as

important part of the long distance telephone n/w using FDM (frequency division
multiplication) a co-axial cable can carry over 10,000 voice channels simultaneously.

3. Short distance communication links: - Co-axial cable is also commonly used for
short range connection between devices. E.g. can be used to provide high speed I/O
channels for an PC system.

4. LAN: - Co-axial cable can be support a large number of devices with a variety of
data and traffic types over distance that covers single building or a complex of
building.

3. Optical Fiber or fiber optics

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of
light.

A light pulse can be used to signal a one (1) bit.

The absence of a pulse signals a zero(0).

The bandwidth of an optical transmission system is potentially enormous.

An optical fiber has an cylindrical shape and consists of 3 concentric section –

(i) Core

(ii) Cladding

(iii) Jacket
1. Core:- It’s the inner most section is made of glass or plastic and is surrounded by
its own cladding. The core diameter is in the range of 8 to 50 µm.

2. Cladding: - A glass or plastic coating that has optical properties different from
those of the core having a diameter of 125 µm. The cladding acts as a reflector to
light that would otherwise escape the core.

3. Jacket: - The outer most layers surrounding caddied fiber is the jacket. Jacket is
composed of plastic or other material layer to protect against moisture, cut, crushing
and other environmental dangers.

2. Unguided Media
Unguided media transmit electromagnetic waves without using a physical
conductor.

This is also called as wireless communication.

Signals are normally broadcast through free space and thus are available to anyone
who has a device capable of receiving them. Electromagnetic Spectrum
(Communication Band) Electromagnetic spectrum is used for wireless
communication. It is divided into various sub-bands.

Propagation Methods Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in
several ways:

• Ground propagation,

• Sky-Propagation, and

• Line-of-Sight Propagation
1. Ground propagation mode:

• Radio waves travel close to the earth.

• These low-frequency signals proceed in all directions from the transmitting antenna
and follow the curvature of the planet.

• Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal: The greater the power, the
greater the distance.

2. Sky propagation mode:

• In this high-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere where they
are reflected back to earth.

• Ionosphere is the layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions.

• This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output power.

3. Line-of-sight propagation mode:

• In this, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna.

• Antennas must be directional, facing each other and tall enough.

• Line-of-sight propagation is tricky because radio transmissions cannot be

completely focused.

Classification of Wireless Media

Wireless communication may be via:

Radio frequency communication

Microwave communication

Infrared short range communication

1. Radio Wave Transmission

• Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequency between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves.

• Radio waves, are omnidirectional, i.e. they are propagated in all directions.

• A sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.

• Radio waves, particularly of low and medium frequencies, can penetrate walls.

• It is an advantage because, an AM radio can receive signals inside a building.

• It is a disadvantage because we cannot isolate a communication to just inside or

outside a building.

Applications
• The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers.

• AM and FM radio,

• Television,

• Maritime radio,

• Cordless phones and paging.

2. Microwave Transmission

• Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1GHz and 300 GHz are called
microwaves.

• Microwaves are unidirectional.

• When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused.

• This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.

• The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage.

• A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned
antennas.

• Microwaves use line-of-sight transmission.

• This means that microwaves must be transmitted in straight line and no

obstructions, such as buildings or mountains, between microwave stations. • To avoid
possible obstructions, microwave antennas often are positioned on the tops of
buildings, towers, or mountains.

Microwave transmission is divided into two types

A. Terrestrial Microwave

• Used for long-distance telephone service.

• Uses radio frequency spectrum, from 2 to 40 GHz.

• Parabolic dish transmitter, mounted high.

• Requires unobstructed line of sight between source and receiver

• Curvature of the earth requires stations (repeaters) 30 miles apart Advantages:

• Effect of noise is reduced because of repeaters.

• Maintenance is less as compared to cable.

• No interference with other transmission channels. Disadvantages:

• Communication can be affected because of atmospheric phenomenon and passing

airplanes and rain

• Line of sight requirement

• Expensive towers and repeaters

Application:-

• Long-distance telecommunication service

• requires fewer amplifiers or repeaters than coaxial cable

B. Satellite microwave:-

A communication satellite acts like a microwave station.

It is used to link two or more ground waves microwave transmitter or receiver

known as earth stations.

The satellite receives transmission on one frequency band (uplink), amplifies or

repeats the signal and transmit it on another frequency (down link).

A single orbiting satellite will operate on no. of frequency bands called transponder
channels or simply transponder.

In the fig the satellite is being used to provide a point to point link between two
distant grounds based antenna.

The signal, a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite called
UPLINK (6 Ghz).

Then the satellite processes the signal and send it back to the receiver’s antenna
present on the earth’s surface called as DOWNLINK (4Ghz).
 The satellite has to receive, process and transmit the signal.

A unit called as Satellite Transponder performs all these functions.

The communication satellite has two sets of transponders.

Each set having 12 transponders.

Each transponder has a bandwidth of 36MHz.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is a set of communication standards that

integrates voice, video, and data services over traditional telephone networks. Unlike
traditional analog phone systems, ISDN offers high-speed digital transmission over
standard copper telephone lines, allowing for faster and more reliable
communication.

Types of ISDN

1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI): CIB

• Consists of two 64 kbps B-channels and one 16 kbps D-channel, often
referred to as 2B+D.
• Ideal for home or small business use.
• The B-channels carry data, voice, or other services, while the D-channel
is used for signaling and control.
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI): DNET
• Designed for larger organizations with more communication needs.
• In North America, it consists of 23 B-channels and one 64 kbps D-
channel, commonly referred to as 23B+D.
 • In Europe and other parts of the world, it consists of 30 B-channels and
one 64 kbps D-channel, referred to as 30B+D.
• PRI is typically delivered over T1 (North America) or E1 (Europe) lines.

Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

• Structure: 2 B-channels (64 kbps each) + 1 D-channel (16 kbps).

• Uses:
• Common for small businesses and home users who require
simultaneous transmission of voice and data.
• One B-channel can be used for voice while the other can be used for
internet access, fax, etc.

Primary Rate Interface (PRI)

• Structure:
• North America: 23 B-channels (64 kbps each) + 1 D-channel (64 kbps).
• Europe and others: 30 B-channels + 1 D-channel.
• Uses:
• Best suited for large businesses or organizations with high
communication needs, such as call centers.
• Allows for multiple voice calls or data sessions to occur simultaneously.

ISDN Channels

• B-channel (Bearer channel):

• 64 kbps used for transmitting voice, data, video, or other services.
• It is the main communication channel.
• D-channel (Delta channel):
• Used for signaling and control purposes.
• In BRI, the D-channel is 16 kbps, while in PRI, it’s 64 kbps.
• H-channel:
• For higher data rate services. It can be H0 (384 kbps), H10 (1472 kbps),
and H11 (1536 kbps).

ISDN Devices

1.Terminal Adapter (TA): Converts non-ISDN devices (e.g., computers) to be

compatible with ISDN.
 2.Network Termination (NT1/NT2): Connects the customer’s ISDN device to
the network. NT1 is used for simple connections, while NT2 handles more
complex configurations.
3.ISDN Telephone: A phone that directly connects to ISDN without needing a
terminal adapter.
4.ISDN Modem/Router: Used for connecting computers to ISDN networks,
providing faster data transmission than traditional modems.
5.Digital PBX: A private branch exchange (PBX) system designed for ISDN
networks, used by organizations to route internal and external
communications.

Advantages of ISDN

1.Higher Data Rates: ISDN provides faster data transmission than traditional
analog phone systems.
2.Simultaneous Voice and Data Transmission: Users can make voice calls
and use data services (such as the internet or fax) at the same time.
3.Reliability and Quality: Digital transmission results in clearer voice quality
and more reliable data connections.
4.Wide Range of Services: ISDN supports voice, video, and data transmission
on a single line, making it versatile for various communication needs.
5.Faster Call Setup: ISDN offers quicker call setup times than analog systems.

Disadvantages of ISDN

1.Cost: ISDN installation and service fees are typically higher than analog
lines, especially for businesses that require PRI.
2.Complexity: ISDN requires specialized equipment (e.g., terminal adapters,
NT1/NT2 devices) and is more complex to set up than analog systems.
3.Limited Availability: ISDN is not as widely available in some rural or remote
areas, especially with the rise of broadband alternatives like DSL and fiber.
4.Superseded by Modern Technologies: With the advent of faster and more
efficient technologies like DSL, cable, and fiber optic internet, ISDN has largely
been replaced in many regions.
Worldwide Wireless Communication

Wireless communication refers to the transfer of information between two or more

points that are not connected by physical cables. It includes a broad range of
technologies, such as mobile networks (e.g., 4G, 5G), Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, satellite
communication, and more. Wireless communication plays a critical role in connecting
people and devices across the globe, enabling a connected digital world.

Devices Used in Wireless Communication

Mobile Phones:
• The most widespread wireless devices, connecting to mobile networks
(2G, 3G, 4G, and 5G) for voice calls, messaging, and internet access.
Tablets & Laptops:
• Wireless-enabled for internet access through Wi-Fi or cellular networks,
allowing portability for work, communication, and entertainment.
Wireless Routers:
• Devices that provide wireless internet connectivity, typically through
Wi-Fi, for homes and businesses.
IoT Devices (Internet of Things):
• Devices like smart home appliances (thermostats, lights), wearable
devices (smartwatches, fitness trackers), and industrial IoT equipment
use wireless protocols like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, and cellular
networks to communicate.
Wireless Headphones and Earbuds:
• Use Bluetooth or other wireless technologies to connect to devices like
smartphones, tablets, and computers without the need for physical
cables.
Drones:
• Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) that are remotely controlled via
wireless communication, commonly used in surveillance, delivery, or
recreation.
Satellite Phones:
• These phones communicate directly with orbiting satellites, providing
wireless communication in remote areas where cellular networks are
unavailable.
Wireless Printers & Peripheral Devices:
 • Devices that connect to computers or networks without physical cables,
typically using Wi-Fi or Bluetooth.

Applications of Wireless Communication

Mobile Communication (Cellular Networks):

• Use: Voice calls, text messaging, internet access (e.g., social media,
browsing, apps).
• Technology: GSM, CDMA, 4G, 5G.
Wi-Fi Networks:
• Use: Wireless access to the internet or local area networks (LANs) in
homes, offices, public places (airports, cafes, hotels).
• Technology: IEEE 802.11 standards.
Bluetooth:
• Use: Short-range communication between devices, such as
headphones, mice, keyboards, or for transferring data between mobile
devices.
• Technology: Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), Classic Bluetooth.
Satellite Communication:
• Use: Global communication for television broadcasting, GPS navigation,
military, and research purposes.
• Technology: Direct communication between satellites and ground
stations or satellite phones.
IoT (Internet of Things):
• Use: Connecting smart devices in homes (smart thermostats, lights),
smart cities (connected traffic systems), and industries (remote
monitoring and automation).
• Technology: Wi-Fi, Zigbee, LoRa, NB-IoT, LTE-M.
Public Safety Networks:
• Use: Wireless networks for first responders and law enforcement to
communicate during emergencies.
• Technology: Public safety LTE, TETRA, P25.
Wireless Sensors:
• Use: Environmental monitoring (air quality, temperature), healthcare
(wearable devices), and industrial automation.
• Technology: Zigbee, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, NB-IoT.
Telemedicine:
 • Use: Providing healthcare services remotely via wireless networks (e.g.,
virtual doctor consultations, remote patient monitoring).
• Technology: Cellular networks, Wi-Fi, and Bluetooth.

Why Wireless Communication?

Mobility:
• Users are not restricted by physical connections, enabling seamless
communication and access to services from anywhere within the
network’s range.
Convenience:
• No need for complex wiring setups. Devices can be added or moved
easily without reconfiguring networks or installing cables.
Scalability:
• Wireless networks can accommodate a large number of devices
without the need for additional cabling infrastructure, making them
easier to expand.
Cost-Effective:
• Wireless networks reduce the need for costly wiring, especially in
remote or difficult-to-access areas. Installation is generally faster and
less expensive than wired systems.
Accessibility:
• Wireless communication makes it easier to connect users in rural and
underserved areas where laying physical cables is difficult or
impractical.
Support for IoT:
• Wireless technologies enable the proliferation of IoT devices, which are
crucial for smart homes, cities, and industrial automation.

Challenges of Wireless Communication

Limited Bandwidth:
• Wireless networks have a limited spectrum, leading to bandwidth
congestion when too many devices are connected simultaneously.
Interference:
 • Wireless signals are susceptible to interference from other electronic
devices, physical obstacles (walls, buildings), or even weather
conditions, which can degrade performance.
Security Concerns:
• Wireless networks are more vulnerable to hacking and unauthorized
access than wired networks. Encryption and security protocols must be
robust to prevent data breaches.
Power Consumption:
• Wireless devices, especially those in constant communication, consume
more battery power, necessitating frequent recharging or the use of
power-efficient communication methods.
Latency:
• Wireless networks, particularly those relying on satellite or mobile
networks, can suffer from latency issues, which can impact real-time
applications like gaming or video conferencing.
Coverage Gaps:
• Wireless communication often faces challenges in providing consistent
coverage in remote or rural areas, as well as inside buildings with thick
walls or underground locations.
Spectrum Regulation:
• Wireless communication relies on radio frequency spectrum, which is
regulated by governments. The availability of spectrum can vary
between countries, and there are limitations on how much spectrum is
available for use.
Health Concerns:
• Some people are concerned about potential health risks associated
with prolonged exposure to radiofrequency (RF) radiation emitted by
wireless devices, although current research has not conclusively proven
any harmful effects.

Cellular Telephony

Cellular telephony refers to the technology that allows mobile phones to

communicate wirelessly over vast areas. It operates using a network of
interconnected cells, each served by a base station (cell tower), and enables mobile
devices to connect to the telephone network and access services like voice calls, text
messaging, and internet data.

Impairments in Cellular Telephony

Path Loss:
• Description: Path loss refers to the weakening of the signal as it travels
over distance. Signal strength decreases as it moves through the air,
over obstacles, and through various materials like buildings, leading to
communication issues.
Fading:
• Description: Fading is the variation in the strength of a signal as it is
received. This can be caused by environmental factors, such as
buildings, trees, and atmospheric conditions.
• Types:
▪ Slow fading: Due to large objects like buildings.
▪ Fast fading: Due to small objects like vehicles or terrain
variations.
Interference:
• Description: Interference occurs when signals from multiple sources
overlap, causing degradation in signal quality. This can happen due to
overlapping frequencies or signals from other electronic devices.
• Types:
▪ Co-channel interference: Interference from neighboring cells
using the same frequency.
▪ Adjacent-channel interference: Interference from frequencies
that are close to the target frequency.
Doppler Shift:
 • Description: The Doppler shift is caused by the relative motion
between the mobile device and the base station. As the mobile device
moves, the frequency of the received signal can shift, leading to
degradation in communication quality.
Shadowing:
• Description: Shadowing occurs when large buildings, hills, or other
obstacles block the line of sight between the mobile device and the cell
tower, causing significant drops in signal strength.
Noise:
• Description: External electronic noise from other devices or
environmental factors (e.g., electromagnetic interference) can degrade
the quality of wireless signals.

Handoff and Handover in Cellular Networks

Handoff (also known as handover) refers to the process of transferring an ongoing

call or data session from one cell (or base station) to another as a mobile user moves
across the network. This process ensures that communication is maintained without
dropping the call or data session.

Types of Handoff/Handover

Hard Handoff:
• Description: A "break-before-make" handoff where the connection
with the current base station is terminated before a new connection is
established with the next base station.
• Usage: Typically used in systems like GSM and CDMA where the mobile
device cannot be connected to two base stations simultaneously.
• Advantages: Simple to implement and uses fewer resources.
• Disadvantages: Higher chance of dropped calls during the switch if the
new connection is not immediately established.
Soft Handoff:
• Description: A "make-before-break" handoff where the mobile device
is connected to two or more base stations at the same time during the
 transition. This ensures smoother handoff by maintaining multiple
connections until the new one is stable.
• Usage: Common in CDMA networks.
• Advantages: Lower chance of dropped calls and provides more reliable
handoff.
• Disadvantages: More complex and resource-intensive because it
requires simultaneous connections to multiple base stations.
Horizontal Handoff:
• Description: A handoff between two cells or base stations within the
same wireless system (e.g., moving from one 4G tower to another 4G
tower).
Vertical Handoff:
• Description: A handoff between two different types of networks, such
as moving from a cellular network (4G/5G) to a Wi-Fi network, or vice
versa.

Handoff/Handover Procedure

The handoff process consists of several key steps:

Measurement:
• The mobile device continuously monitors the signal strength and
quality from its serving base station as well as neighboring base
stations.
Decision:
• A decision is made by the network (or the mobile device in some cases)
to initiate a handoff. This decision is based on factors such as signal
strength, quality, and the distance from the base station.
Execution:
• The network allocates resources (e.g., a new frequency or time slot) at
the target base station for the mobile device.
• In a hard handoff, the mobile device disconnects from the current base
station and connects to the new one. In a soft handoff, the device may
maintain connections to multiple base stations until the process is
complete.
Completion:
 • Once the mobile device has successfully connected to the new base
station, the handoff process is complete, and the resources at the
previous base station are freed up.

Handoff Triggers

• Signal Strength: A handoff may be triggered when the signal strength from
the serving base station falls below a certain threshold.
• Signal Quality: Poor signal quality, indicated by high error rates, can trigger a
handoff even if the signal strength is acceptable.
• Cell Load: In some cases, a handoff may be initiated to balance the load
between base stations when one cell is congested.

Frequency Handoff

Intra-frequency Handoff:
• Occurs when the handoff happens between two cells operating on the
same frequency. It’s common in systems like CDMA and WCDMA.
Inter-frequency Handoff:
• Occurs when the handoff happens between two cells operating on
different frequencies. This is often seen in LTE networks when moving
between different frequency bands (e.g., from 2.1 GHz to 800 MHz).

Advantages of Handoff

Seamless Connectivity: Handoffs allow mobile devices to maintain ongoing

communication sessions without dropping calls or losing data connections,
even when moving at high speeds (e.g., in a car or train).
Optimized Network Resources: Handoff helps in load balancing by moving
devices to less congested cells, ensuring a better experience for users and
more efficient use of network resources.
Improved Signal Quality: By transitioning to a base station with a stronger
signal, handoffs can improve the quality of the connection, ensuring clearer
voice calls and faster data speeds.

Challenges in Handoff

Dropped Calls: In a poorly executed hard handoff, there’s a risk of losing the
connection entirely, leading to dropped calls or interruptions in data transfer.
 Handoff Delay: The time it takes to perform a handoff can lead to delays in
communication, especially in high-speed environments or dense urban areas
where frequent handoffs are needed.
Resource Management: Soft handoffs require additional network resources
since the mobile device is connected to multiple base stations simultaneously,
which can lead to inefficiencies.

Satellite in Communication System

Satellites play a crucial role in global communication systems by relaying signals
across long distances, bypassing the limitations of Earth's curvature. They are used to
transmit television broadcasts, radio signals, internet data, telephone
communications, and even military communication. Satellites in communication
systems provide broad coverage, making it possible to connect remote and rural
areas to the global communication infrastructure.
Classification of Satellites: LEO, MEO, GEO

1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites

• Altitude: 160 km to 2,000 km above Earth's surface.

• Orbit Time: 90 to 120 minutes per orbit.
• Usage: Primarily used for Earth observation, satellite internet services, and
data communication.

Characteristics of LEO Satellites:

• Shorter latency: Due to the proximity to Earth, the time delay (latency) is
much lower compared to higher orbits. This makes LEO satellites ideal for
services requiring real-time communication, such as satellite internet.
• Smaller coverage area: Each satellite covers a small geographical area, so a
constellation of LEO satellites is needed to provide continuous global
coverage.
• Applications:
• Internet services (e.g., Starlink).
• Earth observation (e.g., remote sensing and environmental monitoring).
• Communication for low-latency applications.

Advantages:

• Reduced communication delay compared to higher orbits.

• Higher data transmission rates due to proximity to Earth.

Disadvantages:

• Requires many satellites to maintain global coverage.

• Satellites need to be replaced more frequently due to atmospheric drag and
shorter lifespan.

2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites

• Altitude: 2,000 km to 35,786 km above Earth.

• Orbit Time: 2 to 12 hours per orbit.
 • Usage: Mostly used for navigation systems and some communication services.

Characteristics of MEO Satellites:

• Moderate coverage: MEO satellites cover larger areas compared to LEO

satellites but smaller areas than GEO satellites.
• Navigation systems: MEO satellites are predominantly used in satellite
navigation systems like GPS, Galileo, and GLONASS.

Applications:

• Navigation systems: Provide accurate positioning, navigation, and timing

services (e.g., GPS for civilian and military use).
• Communication: Some communication systems, such as those requiring low
to moderate latency, also use MEO satellites.

Advantages:

• Requires fewer satellites than LEO for global coverage.

• Lower latency compared to GEO satellites.

Disadvantages:

• More latency than LEO systems, though still better than GEO satellites.
• Moderate cost, as fewer satellites are needed compared to LEO, but the
satellites are typically more expensive than LEO units.

3. Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites

• Altitude: Approximately 35,786 km above Earth's equator.

• Orbit Time: Matches the Earth’s rotational period, so the satellite appears to
be stationary relative to a point on the Earth’s surface.
• Usage: Primarily used for communication, broadcasting, and weather
forecasting.
Characteristics of GEO Satellites:

• Constant coverage: GEO satellites remain fixed above one location on the
Earth’s surface, making them ideal for continuous communication over specific
areas.
• Large coverage area: Each GEO satellite can cover about one-third of the
Earth’s surface, meaning only three GEO satellites can provide near-global
coverage (excluding polar regions).

Applications:

• Television broadcasting: GEO satellites are widely used for broadcasting TV

signals across large regions.
• Communication: GEO satellites facilitate telephone, data communication, and
satellite internet services.
• Weather monitoring: Weather satellites in GEO can continuously monitor
weather patterns over specific regions.

Advantages:

• Continuous coverage over a specific area.

• Ideal for broadcasting services and point-to-point communication.

Disadvantages:

• High latency: Due to the long distance from Earth, there is a higher
communication delay, making it less suitable for real-time applications like
online gaming or voice communication.
• Expensive to launch: GEO satellites require more energy to be launched into
such high orbits and typically have higher costs.
• Limited coverage at high latitudes: GEO satellites cannot provide effective
coverage for the polar regions.
Comparison of LEO, MEO, and GEO Satellites

Feature LEO MEO GEO

Altitude 160 - 2,000 km 2,000 - 35,786 km 35,786 km
Orbit Time 90 - 120 minutes 2 - 12 hours Matches Earth's rotation
(24 hours)
Latency Low Moderate High
Coverage Small Moderate Large
Area
Number of Many Fewer than LEO Few (3 for near-global
Satellites (constellations) coverage)
Needed
Applications Earth GPS, navigation TV broadcasting,
observation, systems, communication, weather
satellite internet communication monitoring

Variable Length Subnet Mask (VLSM)

VLSM is a subnetting technique that allows you to allocate different subnet mask
lengths to different subnets according to their specific needs. This approach enables
efficient IP address utilization, unlike fixed-length subnetting, where all subnets must
have the same subnet mask regardless of the number of hosts.
How VLSM Works

In traditional subnetting, the same subnet mask is applied to all subnets, but in
VLSM, you can vary the subnet mask length based on the size of the subnet. For
example, a subnet with 50 hosts will have a different subnet mask than a subnet with
200 hosts.

VLSM allows more efficient use of IP addresses by enabling different sized subnets in
a single network.

Example of VLSM Subnetting

Suppose you are given the network 192.168.10.0/24 and need to create the
following subnets:

• 1 subnet with 100 hosts

• 2 subnets with 50 hosts each
• 2 subnets with 25 hosts each

Step 1: Determine the subnet mask for each subnet

• For 100 hosts, you need at least 7 bits for hosts because 2^7 = 128 (126
usable IP addresses, excluding network and broadcast addresses). So the
subnet mask will be /25 (or 255.255.255.128).
• For 50 hosts, you need at least 6 bits for hosts because 2^6 = 64 (62 usable IP
addresses). So the subnet mask will be /26 (or 255.255.255.192).
• For 25 hosts, you need at least 5 bits for hosts because 2^5 = 32 (30 usable IP
addresses). So the subnet mask will be /27 (or 255.255.255.224).

Step 2: Allocate subnets

• Subnet 1 (100 hosts):

Network: 192.168.10.0/25

IP range: 192.168.10.1 - 192.168.10.126

Broadcast: 192.168.10.127

• Subnet 2 (50 hosts):

Network: 192.168.10.128/26
IP range: 192.168.10.129 - 192.168.10.190

Broadcast: 192.168.10.191

• Subnet 3 (50 hosts):

Network: 192.168.10.192/26

IP range: 192.168.10.193 - 192.168.10.254

Broadcast: 192.168.10.255

• Subnet 4 (25 hosts):

Network: 192.168.11.0/27

IP range: 192.168.11.1 - 192.168.11.30

Broadcast: 192.168.11.31

• Subnet 5 (25 hosts):

Network: 192.168.11.32/27 IP range: 192.168.11.33 - 192.168.11.62 Broadcast:

192.168.11.

In this example, VLSM allows the creation of subnets with different sizes according to
the number of required hosts.

Supernetting

Supernetting, also known as route aggregation, is the opposite of subnetting. It

involves combining several smaller contiguous networks into a larger one.
Supernetting reduces the number of entries in routing tables by summarizing
multiple networks into a single network address. This process helps simplify
routing,particularly in large networks.
How Supernetting Works

Supernetting aggregates multiple Class C networks (or other small subnets) into a
larger block using a shorter subnet mask. For example, you can combine four Class C
networks into a single supernet using a subnet mask of /22.

Example of Supernetting

Consider the following networks:

• 192.168.0.0/24
• 192.168.1.0/24
• 192.168.2.0/24
• 192.168.3.0/24

These four Class C networks can be combined into a single supernet as:

• Supernet: 192.168.0.0/22
Subnet mask: 255.255.252.0
Network range: 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.3.255

This reduces the routing entries from four networks to a single entry, improving
routing efficiency.

Math Questions and Solved Examples

1. VLSM Example Question

Question: You are given the IP address 172.16.0.0/16 and need to create the
following subnets:
 • 1 subnet with 500 hosts.
• 2 subnets with 200 hosts each.
• 4 subnets with 100 hosts each.

Solution:

Step 1: Determine the subnet mask for each subnet

• For 500 hosts: You need at least 9 bits for hosts because 2^9 = 512 (510
usable IPs). So the subnet mask will be /23 (or 255.255.254.0).
• For 200 hosts: You need at least 8 bits for hosts because 2^8 = 256 (254
usable IPs). So the subnet mask will be /24 (or 255.255.255.0).
• For 100 hosts: You need at least 7 bits for hosts because 2^7 = 128 (126
usable IPs). So the subnet mask will be /25 (or 255.255.255.128).

Step 2: Allocate subnets

• Subnet 1 (500 hosts):

Network: 172.16.0.0/23

IP range: 172.16.0.1 - 172.16.1.254

Broadcast: 172.16.1.255

• Subnet 2 (200 hosts):

Network: 172.16.2.0/24

IP range: 172.16.2.1 - 172.16.2.254

Broadcast: 172.16.2.255

• Subnet 3 (200 hosts):

Network: 172.16.3.0/24

IP range: 172.16.3.1 - 172.16.3.254

Broadcast: 172.16.3.255

• Subnet 4 (100 hosts):

Network: 172.16.4.0/25
IP range: 172.16.4.1 - 172.16.4.126

Broadcast: 172.16.4.127

• Subnet 5 (100 hosts):

Network: 172.16.4.128/25

IP range: 172.16.4.129 - 172.16.4.254

Broadcast: 172.16.4.255

• Subnet 6 (100 hosts):

Network: 172.16.5.0/25

IP range: 172.16.5.1 - 172.16.5.126

Broadcast: 172.16.5.127

• Subnet 7 (100 hosts):

Network: 172.16.5.128/25

IP range: 172.16.5.129 - 172.16.5.254

Broadcast: 172.16.5.255

2. Supernetting Example Question

Question: Combine the following networks into a single supernet:

• 192.168.4.0/24
• 192.168.5.0/24
• 192.168.6.0/24
• 192.168.7.0/24

Solution:

• Step 1: Check if networks are contiguous

All four networks are contiguous, and their addresses fall within the range of
192.168.4.0 to 192.168.7.255.

• Step 2: Determine the subnet mask for the supernet

To combine these four Class C networks, we reduce the subnet mask to cover all the
networks.

• Subnet mask: /22

• This gives us a network range of 192.168.4.0 - 192.168.7.255.

Thus, the networks can be combined into a supernet as:

• Supernet: 192.168.4.0/22
Subnet mask: 255.255.252.0
Network range: 192.168.4.0 - 192.168.7.255

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM is a high-speed networking technology designed for the transmission of voice,

video, and data over the same network. It operates in the data link layer (Layer 2) of
the OSI model and uses fixed-size cells for transmitting information. ATM is
connection-oriented, meaning it requires establishing a connection before data
transmission.

ATM Cell Format

The basic unit of data in ATM is the ATM cell, which has a fixed size of 53 bytes. The
cell consists of two parts:

• 5-byte header: Contains control information for routing, congestion control,

and error handling.
• 48-byte payload: Contains user data, voice, or video.
ATM Cell Header Structure

Generic Flow Control (GFC): 4 bits used to manage traffic at the User-
Network Interface (UNI) level.
Virtual Path Identifier (VPI): 8 or 12 bits used to identify the virtual path.
Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI): 16 bits used to identify the virtual channel
within a virtual path.
Payload Type (PT): 3 bits used to define the type of information in the
payload.
Cell Loss Priority (CLP): 1 bit used to indicate the priority of the cell.
Header Error Control (HEC): 8 bits used for error correction of the header.

ATM Service Categories

ATM supports several Quality of Service (QoS) categories, depending on the type
of application and data being transmitted.

1. Available Bit Rate (ABR)

• ABR is designed for applications that can tolerate some delay but need
guaranteed delivery of data.
• In ABR, the sender adjusts its transmission rate based on the current network
conditions (feedback from the network).
• Example: File transfer services.

2. Constant Bit Rate (CBR)

• CBR provides a fixed amount of bandwidth for applications that require a

steady flow of data with low delay.
 • It is suitable for real-time applications like voice and video.
• Example: Voice over IP (VoIP), video conferencing.

3. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)

• UBR is for applications that do not need guaranteed delivery or specific

timing requirements.
• There is no feedback mechanism to adjust the rate based on network
conditions.
• Example: Email, web browsing.

4. Variable Bit Rate (VBR)

• VBR is designed for applications with variable bandwidth requirements. It can

be used for real-time or non-real-time traffic.
• Real-Time VBR (rt-VBR): Used for applications that require timely delivery,
such as interactive video.
• Non-Real-Time VBR (nrt-VBR): Used for applications where data timing is
less critical.
• Example: Video streaming, voice applications with silence suppression.

UNI (User-Network Interface) and NNI (Network-Network Interface)

User-Network Interface (UNI)

• The UNI defines the interface between ATM end devices (such as a user’s
computer or router) and the ATM switch at the edge of the network.
• It handles the flow of data between the user and the network.

Network-Network Interface (NNI)

• The NNI defines the interface between ATM switches within the network.
• It manages the connection between switches, ensuring that data can travel
across the ATM network efficiently.
Virtual Path Identifier (VPI)

• The VPI is part of the ATM cell header and is used to identify the virtual path
for data transmission.
• A virtual path is a bundle of virtual channels, allowing multiple connections
to share the same physical path.
• VPI helps in routing data within the ATM network efficiently.

Generic Flow Control (GFC)

• GFC is a 4-bit field in the ATM cell header that controls the flow of traffic from
the user device to the network.
• It helps manage congestion at the UNI by controlling the rate at which cells
are transmitted from the user to the network.

ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)

ATM uses an additional layer called the ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL), which sits
between higher-layer protocols and the ATM layer. It provides services for converting
user data into a format suitable for transmission via ATM cells.

Types of AAL:

AAL1: Used for constant bit rate services, such as voice or video, where timing
is critical.

Example: Real-time video conferencing.

AAL2: Designed for variable bit rate traffic, typically for low-bit-rate voice or
video data.

Example: Compressed voice applications.

AAL3/4: Supports both connection-oriented and connectionless data services.

It was initially used for data services but was later replaced by AAL5.
 AAL5: The most commonly used AAL for data communication. It provides
efficient support for IP traffic over ATM.

Example: LAN interconnection using ATM.

Bit and Bitstream

• Bit: The smallest unit of data in computing, representing a 0 or 1.

• Bitstream: A continuous sequence of bits transmitted or processed as a unit.
In ATM, data is transmitted as a bitstream, which is divided into 53-byte ATM
cells.

ATM Congestion Control

ATM provides several mechanisms for congestion control to ensure efficient data
transmission even in high-traffic conditions:

3. Traffic Shaping: Regulates the flow of data entering the network to avoid
congestion.
4. Policing: Ensures that traffic adheres to the agreed-upon traffic contract (e.g.,
maximum allowable rate).
5. Resource Management (RM) Cells: Special cells used in ABR service to
provide feedback to the sender about network congestion levels.

ATM Application

ATM is used in a wide variety of applications that require high-speed data

transmission and the integration of multiple services (voice, video, and data). Some
key applications include:

• Voice over ATM (VoATM): Transmitting voice data over ATM networks.
• Video Conferencing: Real-time video transmission using ATM’s low-latency
service.
 • WAN (Wide Area Network) Connectivity: ATM is used to interconnect large
networks and provide high-speed internet access for businesses.
• Broadband Internet Access: ATM is often used in DSL (Digital Subscriber
Line) technology for broadband access.

Example Math Question: ATM Cell Overhead

Question: Calculate the overhead percentage in an ATM cell, given that the payload
is 48 bytes and the header is 5 bytes.

Solution:

• Total cell size = 48 bytes (payload) + 5 bytes (header) = 53 bytes.

• Overhead = (Header size / Total cell size) × 100
= (5 / 53) × 100
= 9.43%

Thus, the overhead in an ATM cell is 9.43%.

How Email Appears to Work

Email is a method of exchanging digital messages over a network, typically the

internet. The process of sending and receiving emails involves several steps and
components, including email clients, servers, and email protocols. Here's a simplified
overview of how email works:

Email Composition:

A user writes an email using an email client or webmail interface (like Gmail, Outlook,
etc.). The email consists of a message body, and metadata (such as sender, recipient
addresses, subject, and attachments).

Email Transmission (Sending):

Once the email is written, the email client sends the email to an SMTP (Simple Mail
Transfer Protocol) server. The SMTP server is responsible for forwarding the
message to the recipient's email server.
 Email Routing:

The SMTP server identifies the recipient’s email address domain (e.g., example.com)
and routes the email through a series of Mail Transfer Agents (MTAs) to the
recipient’s email server, typically an IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) or
POP3 (Post Office Protocol) server.

Email Reception:

The recipient’s email server stores the email until the recipient retrieves it using an
email client. The client communicates with the email server using IMAP or POP3 to
download or sync the email.

Email Retrieval:

The recipient's email client downloads the message from the email server. This
process can either:

• Sync with the server, leaving copies of the email on the server (using
IMAP), or
• Download the emails and remove them from the server (using POP3).
Email Display:

Once the email is retrieved, it is displayed to the recipient in their inbox.

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

SMTP is the standard protocol used to send emails from an email client to an email
server or between email servers. It is a push protocol, meaning it is designed to
push email from one server to another. SMTP operates at the application layer of the
OSI model.
How SMTP Works:

• Step 1: Client to Server:

When you click "send" on your email client, the client connects to the SMTP server
using the SMTP protocol. The SMTP server validates your identity and prepares to
send the email.

• Step 2: Sending the Email:

The email client sends the email to the SMTP server, which formats the email and
prepares it for delivery.

• Step 3: Email Routing:

The SMTP server identifies the recipient’s domain from the email address (e.g.,
@example.com) and uses DNS (Domain Name System) to look up the recipient's
email server.

• Step 4: Forwarding to the Recipient's Server:

The SMTP server forwards the email to the recipient's Mail Transfer Agent (MTA),
which may involve routing through multiple intermediate servers.

• Step 5: Storing the Email:

The recipient’s mail server (either an IMAP or POP3 server) stores the email in the
appropriate mailbox until it is retrieved by the recipient.

Example:

When an email is sent from alice@example.com to bob@example.org, Alice’s

email client sends the email to her SMTP server, which then finds Bob’s email server
(through DNS) and sends the email to Bob’s SMTP server. The email is then stored on
Bob's mail server.

SMTP Ports:

• Port 25: Default port for SMTP, mainly used for server-to-server
communication.
 • Port 587: Used for client-to-server communication (sending emails securely
with STARTTLS).
• Port 465: Used for SMTP over SSL (secure email transmission).

POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3)

POP3 is a retrieval protocol used to download emails from the server to the client.
Once the email is downloaded, it is typically deleted from the server unless the
client is configured to leave copies of messages on the server. POP3 is a simple
protocol that doesn’t synchronize changes made across multiple devices.

How POP3 Works:

• Step 1: Client Connection:

The email client connects to the POP3 server using the POP3 protocol. This server
holds the email in the recipient's mailbox.

• Step 2: Authentication:

The client authenticates the user by providing the username and password to access
the mailbox.

• Step 3: Downloading Emails:

The POP3 server sends the email data to the client, which downloads it to the local
machine. By default, POP3 downloads the email and removes it from the server.

• Step 4: Disconnection:
Once the emails are downloaded, the connection to the server is terminated.

Advantages of POP3:

• Works well in environments where the user wants to access emails offline.
• Reduces server storage usage since emails are stored locally on the client
machine.

Disadvantages of POP3:

• Emails are typically removed from the server, which means if you access your
emails on another device, they won’t be available unless manually configured.
• No synchronization between devices.

POP3 Ports:

• Port 110: Default port for POP3.

• Port 995: Port for POP3 over SSL/TLS (secure communication).

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol)

IMAP is another retrieval protocol but unlike POP3, it allows multiple devices to
access the same email account and sync their mailboxes. IMAP leaves the email on
the server, which allows users to access and manage their emails from different
devices and locations.
How IMAP Works:

• Step 1: Client Connection:

The email client connects to the IMAP server. This server stores the email in the
user's mailbox.

• Step 2: Email Synchronization:

IMAP allows the client to sync with the server, meaning changes made in the email
client (like reading, deleting, or moving messages) are reflected on the server and
other devices.

• Step 3: Email Retrieval:

Emails are not fully downloaded to the client by default. Instead, the email header
and body are fetched when requested, saving bandwidth.

• Step 4: Folder Management:

IMAP supports organizing emails into folders on the server. These folders are
synchronized across all devices.

Advantages of IMAP:

• Emails remain on the server, allowing access from multiple devices.

• Synchronizes email actions (like marking an email as read or deleting it) across
all devices.
• Good for users who access their emails from various devices.

Disadvantages of IMAP:

• Requires more server storage as emails remain on the server.

• Constant synchronization can increase bandwidth usage.

IMAP Ports:

• Port 143: Default port for IMAP.

• Port 993: Port for IMAP over SSL/TLS (secure communication).
Key Differences Between POP3 and IMAP

Feature POP3 IMAP

Email Downloads emails to the client and Emails remain on the server.
Storage removes them from the server.
Multiple Not ideal for accessing emails from Best for accessing emails on
Devices multiple devices. multiple devices.
Synchroni No synchronization between server Synchronizes between server
zation and client after download. and client.
Offline Full offline access (emails are stored Partial offline access (emails
Access locally). are fetched as needed).
Folder No support for server-side folders. Supports server-side folders.
Managem
ent

Router
A router is a networking device that forwards data packets between different
computer networks. It uses IP addresses to determine the best path for forwarding
the packets and directs the traffic between devices within networks or across the
internet. Routers connect local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks
(WANs) and ensure data reaches its destination.

Main Functions of Routers:

• Packet forwarding: Routers examine the destination IP address in a data

packet and forward it to the correct destination.
• Traffic control: They control network traffic, preventing congestion.
• Routing: Routers determine the best path for data transmission using routing
tables and routing protocols.
Types of Routers

Wired Routers:

These routers are connected to other network devices (e.g., computers or switches)
using Ethernet cables. They are often used in homes or businesses to manage wired
connections.

Wireless Routers:

Wireless routers allow devices to connect over Wi-Fi without using physical cables.
They are commonly used in homes and offices to provide wireless internet access.

Core Routers:

Core routers are high-performance routers used by Internet Service Providers (ISPs)
to route data within the backbone of the internet. They handle large amounts of data
and connect to other core routers.

Edge Routers:

Edge routers sit at the boundary of a network and connect internal networks to
external networks, such as the internet. They are typically used by ISPs and large
organizations.

Virtual Routers:

Virtual routers are software-based routers that perform the same functions as
physical routers but operate on virtual machines in the cloud or on servers.

Routing Algorithm

Routing algorithms are the methods or protocols used by routers to determine the
best path for forwarding data packets across networks. The two main categories of
routing algorithms are:

1.Distance Vector Routing:

In distance vector routing, routers share information about the entire network with
their neighbors, and each router maintains a table of the shortest distance to each
possible destination. The Bellman-Ford algorithm is commonly used in this
approach.

2.Link-State Routing:

In link-state routing, routers build a complete map (topology) of the network and use
this map to calculate the shortest path to each destination. The Dijkstra algorithm is
used to compute the shortest path. Each router independently calculates the shortest
path using the network topology.

Optimality Principle

The Optimality Principle is a foundational concept in routing that states:

"If router J is on the optimal path from router I to router K, then the optimal path
from J to K also falls along the same path."

In simpler terms, if a router is on the best route between two endpoints, then that
part of the route will also be optimal for any other packets passing through the same
section. This principle helps in designing efficient routing protocols.

DoS (Denial of Service) Attack

A DoS (Denial of Service) attack is a malicious attempt to disrupt the normal

functioning of a network, service, or application by overwhelming the target with a
flood of illegitimate traffic or requests. This prevents legitimate users from accessing
the service.

How a DoS Attack Works:

• Attackers flood the target with more requests than it can handle.
• The target's resources (e.g., bandwidth, memory, CPU) get consumed, slowing
down or crashing the service.
DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) Attack

A DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) attack is similar to a DoS attack but is

launched from multiple compromised devices (often referred to as a botnet) rather
than a single source. These devices can be spread across different geographic
locations, making it harder to trace the attack's origin.

How a DDoS Attack Works:

• The attacker infects multiple devices (bots) and uses them to send traffic to a
single target.
• The target becomes overwhelmed by the massive number of requests, causing
disruption or shutdown of the service.

Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)

In networking, a Minimum Spanning Tree (MST) is a subset of edges that connects

all vertices (nodes) in a graph with the minimum possible total edge weight, ensuring
that there are no cycles.

Importance of MST in Networking:

• Used in designing network topologies to minimize the cost of laying cables

or wireless links between nodes.
• Helps reduce redundancy and ensures optimal network design for minimal
cost.

Algorithm to Find MST:

Prim’s Algorithm: Starts from a random node and adds the shortest edge to
the growing MST.
Kruskal’s Algorithm: Sorts all edges and adds the smallest edges to the MST,
ensuring no cycles are formed.
Distance Vector Routing Algorithm

Distance Vector Routing is a decentralized routing algorithm where each router

maintains a table (called a routing table) of the best-known distances to all other
nodes in the network.

How it Works:

Each router sends its routing table to its neighboring routers at regular
intervals.
The receiving routers update their tables based on the information they
receive, adjusting the distance to each destination.
This process continues until all routers have the most efficient routes to all
network destinations.

Bellman-Ford Algorithm (Used in Distance Vector Routing):

• Each router updates its distance vector by examining the distances reported
by its neighbors and selecting the shortest path.

Disadvantages:

• Slow to converge.
• Prone to routing loops.

Link State Routing Algorithm

In Link State Routing, each router maintains a full map (topology) of the network.
Routers broadcast their link state (the condition of their network links) to all other
routers, allowing each router to independently calculate the shortest path to all
destinations.

How it Works:

Link-State Advertisements (LSAs): Each router sends information about its

links to all other routers in the network.
Building the Topology: Routers collect all LSAs and build a complete network
topology.
Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Each router runs Dijkstra’s algorithm to compute the
shortest path to each node in the network.

Advantages:

• Faster convergence than distance vector routing.

• Avoids routing loops.

Differences Between Hub, Gateway, Switch, and Router

Device Function Key Features

Hub A simple device that connects - Operates at Layer 1 (Physical
multiple devices in a LAN, Layer).
broadcasting data to all ports. - Does not filter traffic, leading
to network inefficiencies.
Switch Connects devices in a LAN and - Operates at Layer 2 (Data Link
forwards data to the correct Layer).
destination based on MAC - Filters and forwards data to
addresses. specific devices, improving
efficiency.
 Router Connects multiple networks and - Operates at Layer 3 (Network
forwards data based on IP Layer).
addresses. - Routes data between different
networks (e.g., LAN to WAN).
Gateway A device that acts as a translator - Operates at all layers.
between different network - Converts data between
protocols. incompatible networks (e.g.,
TCP/IP to X.25).

➢ +8880-02-9138234/113

Country Code:

The country code is the initial segment of a phone number that indicates which
country the call is originating from or being directed to. In this case, +88 is the
international dialing code for Bangladesh.

Trunk Code:

The trunk code is a number that is dialed after the country code to access a specific
area or region within that country. In this example, 02 is the trunk code for Dhaka,
the capital city of Bangladesh.

Link Code:

The link code is not a standard term in telecommunications. However, it can refer to
codes used in specific telecommunications systems to link services or networks. It
may also relate to internal routing mechanisms within a country’s telecommunication
infrastructure.
 Extension Code:

The extension code is a number that follows the main telephone number, used
within private networks or organizations to connect calls directly to specific lines or
devices. In this case, 113 could be an internal extension for a particular department
or office.

Telecommunication Network Hierarchy

The telecommunication network hierarchy refers to the structured arrangement of

network elements that facilitate communication. It typically consists of several layers:

End Devices: User terminals such as telephones, computers, and mobile

devices.
Local Exchange: Connects end users to the telecommunications network and
handles local calls.
Regional Network: Comprises several local exchanges and provides
connectivity within a specific region.
National Network: Encompasses multiple regional networks and facilitates
long-distance calls across the country.
International Network: Connects national networks, enabling global
communication.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC)

A Mobile Switching Center (MSC) is a critical component of mobile networks,
responsible for managing the communication between mobile devices and the
network. Key functions include:

• Call Routing: The MSC routes calls to and from mobile users, ensuring
connections are established efficiently.
• Handover Management: It manages the transition of ongoing calls from one
cell to another as users move.
• Subscriber Management: The MSC tracks user locations and services,
maintaining records of active sessions.

Subscriber Loop Design

The subscriber loop design refers to the physical and logical layout of connections
that link end-users to the telecommunications network. Key aspects include:

• Copper or Fiber Optic Cabling: Traditional subscriber loops use copper wires
(POTS), while modern loops may utilize fiber optics for higher bandwidth.
• Distribution Points: These are junctions where subscriber lines converge and
are connected to central offices or exchanges.

Wireless Local Loop (WLL)

The Wireless Local Loop (WLL) is a system that connects subscribers to the public
switched telephone network (PSTN) using wireless technology rather than traditional
wired connections. Key features include:

• Flexibility: WLL allows rapid deployment in areas where laying cables is

difficult or costly.
• Mobile Access: Users can connect from various locations within the coverage
area.
Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) is a high-speed internet connection technology that

uses existing telephone lines to transmit digital data. Key characteristics include:

• Asymmetric DSL (ADSL): Offers higher download speeds than upload

speeds, suitable for residential users.
• Symmetric DSL (SDSL): Provides equal download and upload speeds, often
used in business environments.

Telephone Exchange

A telephone exchange is a centralized system that connects multiple telephone

lines and manages call routing. Key components include:

• Switching Systems: These determine the optimal path for calls between
different lines.
• Control Equipment: Monitors and maintains service quality and performance.

Private Branch Exchange (PBX)

A Private Branch Exchange (PBX) is a private telephone network used within an

organization, allowing internal communication and external calls. Key features
include:

• Call Routing: Manages calls within the organization and routes external calls
to the appropriate extensions.
• Cost Efficiency: Reduces the cost of external phone calls by using internal
lines for communication.

Advantages of Using PBX:

• Cost Savings: Reduces telecommunication costs by enabling free internal

calls.
• Scalability: Easily expandable as the organization grows.
 • Features: Provides advanced features like call forwarding, voicemail, and
conferencing.

Network Security

Network security is the practice of protecting a computer network from intrusions,

attacks, and other unauthorized access. It encompasses various measures and
protocols to safeguard data integrity, confidentiality, and availability.

Types of Network Security:

Firewalls: Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based
on predetermined security rules.
Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS): Detects and alerts on unauthorized
access or anomalies within the network.
Encryption: Secures data by converting it into a code, preventing
unauthorized access during transmission.
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs): Creates secure connections over the
internet, ensuring privacy and data integrity.

Active Attack vs. Passive Attack

Active Attack:

An active attack involves malicious attempts to alter, disrupt, or destroy data or

network services. Examples include:

• Denial of Service (DoS): Flooding a network to disrupt services.

• Data Modification: Altering data packets in transit.
Passive Attack:

A passive attack involves unauthorized monitoring of data without altering it.

Examples include:

• Eavesdropping: Intercepting data transmissions to gain sensitive

information.
• Traffic Analysis: Monitoring traffic patterns to infer details about the
network and its users.
Cryptography

Cryptography is the practice and study of techniques for securing communication

and information by transforming it into a format that is unreadable for unauthorized
users. The primary goal of cryptography is to ensure confidentiality, integrity,
authentication, and non-repudiation.

Key Objectives of Cryptography:

Confidentiality: Ensuring that information is accessible only to authorized

parties.
Integrity: Verifying that information has not been altered in transit.
Authentication: Confirming the identity of users and the integrity of their
messages.
Non-repudiation: Ensuring that a sender cannot deny having sent a message.

Block Diagram of Cryptography System

The block diagram of a cryptographic system generally includes the following

components:

Plaintext: The original message that needs to be secured.

Encryption Algorithm: The method used to transform plaintext into
ciphertext using a key.
Ciphertext: The encrypted output that appears as a random string of
characters, unreadable without decryption.
Decryption Algorithm: The method used to transform ciphertext back into
plaintext using a key.
Key: A piece of information that determines the output of the encryption
algorithm.
Types of Cryptography

Symmetric Cryptography:
• Description: In symmetric cryptography, the same key is used for both
encryption and decryption.
• Advantages: Fast and efficient for large data volumes.
• Examples: Data Encryption Standard (DES), Advanced Encryption
Standard (AES).
Asymmetric Cryptography:
• Description: Uses a pair of keys – a public key for encryption and a
private key for decryption.
• Advantages: Provides a higher level of security as the private key is not
shared.
• Examples: RSA algorithm, Diffie-Hellman key exchange.
Hash Functions:
• Description: Converts data into a fixed-size hash value, ensuring data
integrity.
• Advantages: Irreversible and provides a unique output for different
inputs.
• Examples: SHA-256, MD5.

Data Encryption Standard (DES)

DES is a symmetric key algorithm used for data encryption. It was developed in the
1970s and was widely adopted until it was superseded by more secure algorithms.

• Key Length: 56 bits.

• Block Size: 64 bits.
• Process: DES operates through a series of permutations and substitutions:
a. Initial Permutation: Rearranges bits.
 b. Rounds: 16 rounds of processing using the key.
c. Final Permutation: Rearranges bits back to original format.

Security:

Although DES was once considered secure, advancements in computing power have
made it vulnerable to brute-force attacks.

Brute-Force Attack

A brute-force attack is a trial-and-error method used to decode encrypted data or

gain unauthorized access to systems by systematically checking all possible keys or
passwords until the correct one is found.

• Characteristics:
• Time-consuming and computationally expensive.
• The time to crack increases exponentially with key length.

Example:

If a password consists of 4 characters from a set of 26 letters, the total possible

combinations would be 264=456,97626^4 = 456,976264=456,976. A brute-force
attack would attempt each combination until the correct password is found.

RSA Algorithm

RSA (Rivest-Shamir-Adleman) is a widely used asymmetric cryptographic algorithm

for secure data transmission.

• Key Generation:
a. Select two large prime numbers, p and q.
b. Compute n=p×q (modulus).
c. Calculate ϕ(n)=(p−1)(q−1) (Euler's totient function).
d. Choose a public exponent e such that 1<e<ϕ(n) and
gcd(e,ϕ(n))=1.
e. Compute the private exponent d such that d≡e−1modϕ(n).
 • Encryption:
• Ciphertext CCC is computed as C≡Memod nC \equiv M^e \mod
nC≡Memodn, where MMM is the plaintext.
• Decryption:
• Plaintext MMM is recovered as M≡Cdmod nM \equiv C^d \mod
nM≡Cdmodn.

Security:

RSA's security is based on the difficulty of factoring large prime numbers.

Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange

The Diffie-Hellman key exchange is a method used to securely share cryptographic

keys over a public channel.

• Process:
d. Two parties agree on a large prime number ppp and a base ggg.
e. Each party selects a private key (e.g., aaa for Alice, bbb for Bob) and
computes their public keys:
▪ Alice: A=gamod pA = g^a \mod pA=gamodp
▪ Bob: B=gbmod pB = g^b \mod pB=gbmodp
f. They exchange their public keys.
g. Each party computes the shared secret:
▪ Alice computes s=Bamod ps = B^a \mod ps=Bamodp
▪ Bob computes s=Abmod ps = A^b \mod ps=Abmodp

Security:

Even if an attacker intercepts the public keys, they cannot easily compute the shared
secret without knowing the private keys.
1. Pretty Good Privacy (PGP)

PGP is a data encryption and decryption program used for securing emails, files, and
texts through cryptography. It combines symmetric-key and public-key cryptography
for enhanced security.

Key Features:

• Encryption: Ensures that only the intended recipient can read the message.
• Digital Signatures: Provides authenticity by allowing the sender to sign
messages.
• Web of Trust: A decentralized trust model where users validate each other's
public keys.

How it Works:

1.The sender creates a symmetric key for the message.

2.The message is encrypted using this symmetric key.
3.The symmetric key is then encrypted with the recipient's public key.
4.The recipient uses their private key to decrypt the symmetric key and then
the message.

2. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

HTTP is the protocol used for transferring hypertext requests and information on the
internet. It forms the foundation of data communication on the web.
Characteristics:

• Stateless Protocol: Each request is independent; the server does not retain
session information.
• Request/Response Model: Clients send requests, and servers respond with
the requested data.

3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

HTTPS is an extension of HTTP that provides secure communication over a computer

network by using SSL/TLS protocols.

Key Features:

• Encryption: Encrypts the data transmitted between the client and server,
ensuring confidentiality.
• Integrity: Ensures that the data is not altered during transmission.
• Authentication: Confirms the identity of the communicating parties.

4. Secure Shell (SSH)

SSH is a cryptographic network protocol for operating network services securely over
an unsecured network. It is widely used for secure remote logins and command
execution.
Key Features:

• Encrypted Communication: Protects against eavesdropping and man-in-the-

middle attacks.
• Secure File Transfer: Allows secure transfer of files through SCP and SFTP.
• Authentication: Supports various authentication methods, including
password and public key.

5. Transport Layer Security (TLS)

TLS is a cryptographic protocol designed to provide secure communication over a

computer network. It is the successor to SSL.

Key Features:

• Data Encryption: Encrypts data to protect privacy.

• Data Integrity: Ensures that data cannot be modified during transmission.
• Authentication: Verifies the identity of the parties involved.

6. How DNS Solver Resolves IP Addresses

The DNS (Domain Name System) solver translates human-readable domain names
into IP addresses. Here’s how it works:

User Request: A user enters a domain name into their browser.

Recursive Resolver: The request is sent to a DNS recursive resolver, which
starts the process of finding the IP address.
Root Server: If the resolver doesn’t have the IP address cached, it queries a
root DNS server, which directs it to a Top-Level Domain (TLD) server.
TLD Server: The resolver then queries the TLD server (e.g., .com) to get the
authoritative name server for the domain.
Authoritative Name Server: Finally, it queries the authoritative name server,
which returns the IP address to the resolver.
Return IP Address: The resolver returns the IP address to the user’s browser,
enabling the connection.

7. Three Basic Levels of DNS Servers

Root DNS Servers:

• The highest level in the DNS hierarchy, responsible for knowing where
to direct queries for TLD servers.
TLD DNS Servers:
• Responsible for managing domains under a specific top-level domain
(e.g., .com, .org).
Authoritative DNS Servers:
• Contain the actual DNS records for the domain and provide definitive
answers to queries.
8. Fast Ethernet

Fast Ethernet refers to Ethernet networks that transmit data at speeds of 100 Mbps.
It is based on the IEEE 802.3u standard.

Key Features:

• Compatibility: Compatible with existing 10 Mbps Ethernet networks.

• Types: Includes 100Base-TX (twisted pair) and 100Base-FX (fiber optic).

9. Gigabit Ethernet

Gigabit Ethernet operates at speeds of 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps) and is based on IEEE
802.3ab (for twisted pair) and IEEE 802.3z (for fiber optic).

Key Features:

• High-Speed Data Transfer: Suitable for data-intensive applications.

• Backward Compatibility: Compatible with Fast Ethernet and 10Base-T
standards.

10. Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

The IEEE 802.3 standard defines the frame format for Ethernet networks:

• Preamble: 7 bytes, used for synchronization.

• Start Frame Delimiter: 1 byte, indicates the start of the frame.
• Destination MAC Address: 6 bytes.
• Source MAC Address: 6 bytes.
• Length/Type Field: 2 bytes, indicates the length of the payload or type of the
protocol.
• Data Payload: 46-1500 bytes, contains the actual data.
• Frame Check Sequence (FCS): 4 bytes, used for error checking.

11. World Wide Web (WWW)

The WWW is an information space where documents and resources are identified by
URLs. HTTP is the protocol used to access these resources.

• Interconnected Information: Uses hyperlinks to connect web pages.

• Client-Server Model: Clients request resources from web servers using HTTP.

12. Remote Logging

Remote logging allows logs from different devices to be collected and stored in a
centralized location for monitoring and analysis. This is critical for security,
compliance, and troubleshooting.
Key Features:

• Centralized Management: Facilitates monitoring of multiple devices from a

single interface.
• Real-Time Monitoring: Enables immediate detection of issues.

13. Telnet

Telnet is a network protocol used to provide a command-line interface for

communication with remote devices.

Characteristics:

• Unencrypted Communication: Data, including passwords, is transmitted in

plaintext, making it less secure than SSH.
• Remote Access: Allows users to manage devices like routers and switches.

14. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is a standard network protocol used for transferring files between a client and
server over a TCP-based network.

Key Features:

• Active and Passive Modes: Supports two modes for establishing connections.
• Authentication: Users can authenticate with a username and password.
• File Operations: Allows uploading, downloading, renaming, and deleting files.
15. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is a core protocol of the Internet Protocol Suite, ensuring reliable

communication between devices.

Key Features:

• Connection-Oriented: Establishes a connection before data transmission.

• Reliability: Guarantees delivery of data through error checking and
retransmission.
• Flow Control: Manages the rate of data transmission to prevent
overwhelming the receiver.

16. User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is a simpler, connectionless protocol that allows for fast transmission of data
without reliability checks.

Key Features:

• Connectionless: No need to establish a connection before sending data.

• Speed: Faster than TCP due to the lack of error correction and flow control.
• Use Cases: Suitable for applications where speed is critical, such as video
streaming and online gaming.

17. Transport Layer Connection Setup

In TCP, the connection setup involves a three-way handshake process to establish a

reliable connection between a client and server.

Three-Way Handshake Process:

SYN: The client sends a synchronization (SYN) packet to the server to initiate a
connection.
SYN-ACK: The server responds with a synchronization acknowledgment (SYN-
ACK) to confirm receipt of the SYN packet.
 ACK: The client sends an acknowledgment (ACK) back to the server,
completing the connection setup.

18. Slow Start Control (TCP)

Slow Start is a TCP congestion control mechanism that helps manage data
transmission rates to avoid network congestion.

• How it Works:
• TCP starts with a small congestion window (CWND) and increases it
exponentially with each acknowledgment received until it reaches a
threshold.
• Purpose: Prevents overwhelming the network by gradually ramping up the
data transmission rate.

19. CCITT (Consultative Committee for International Telegraphy

and Telephony)

CCITT, now known as the International Telecommunication Union (ITU-T), is an

organization that develops and publishes telecommunications standards.

Key Contributions:

• Standardization: Establishes international standards for telecommunication

systems and protocols.
• Recommendations: Provides guidelines that influence the development of
global communication systems.
Types of Signaling

1. Channel Signaling

• Definition: Refers to the method of signaling used in communication

channels to convey control information or data.
• Types:
• In-Channel Signaling:
▪ Signals are transmitted over the same channel that carries the
voice or data traffic.
▪ Common in traditional telephony; signaling information is
embedded within the same channel.
▪ Examples include dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF) signaling
used in touch-tone phones.
• Out-of-Channel Signaling:
▪ Signaling information is transmitted over a separate channel
from the main data stream.
▪ Provides better reliability and can carry additional information
without affecting the main data.
▪ Examples include Signaling System 7 (SS7) used in telephone
networks.

SONET (Synchronous Optical Networking)

• Definition: A standardized digital communication protocol used for

transmitting large amounts of data over optical fiber.
• Key Features:
• Provides high-speed data transfer (ranging from 51.84 Mbps to over 10
Gbps).
• Supports multiplexing of different data types, including voice, data, and
video.
• Offers automatic protection switching for fault tolerance and
redundancy.
• Uses a synchronous transmission method, ensuring timing consistency
across the network.
SONET Layers Compared with OSI Layers

SONET Layer OSI Layer Description

Photonic Layer Layer 1 (Physical) Manages the physical transmission
medium (fiber optics).
Section Layer Layer 1 (Physical) Manages end-to-end transport and
error detection across a section.
Line Layer Layer 2 (Data Link) Responsible for error correction,
framing, and multiplexing.
Path Layer Layer 2 (Data Link) Manages end-to-end connections
and transport of data paths.
Higher Layers Layers 3-7 (Network to Not explicitly defined in SONET;
Application) higher-level protocols handle these
layers.

Link Layer Services

• Data Link Layer: Responsible for reliable node-to-node data transfer and
framing.
• Key Services Provided:
• Framing: Divides data into manageable units called frames, adding
headers and trailers for identification.
• Error Detection: Identifies and corrects errors in transmitted frames
using techniques such as checksums or cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).
• Flow Control: Prevents a sender from overwhelming a receiver with
too much data by controlling the data rate.
• Medium Access Control (MAC): Regulates how multiple devices
access the shared communication medium to avoid collisions.

Channel Partitioning

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

• Divides the frequency band into multiple channels, each carrying a
separate signal (e.g., radio broadcasting).
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):
 • Allocates fixed time slots to different signals in a cyclic manner,
allowing multiple signals to share the same channel (e.g., digital
telephony).
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
• Uses unique spreading codes to allow multiple users to share the same
frequency channel simultaneously, minimizing interference.

Random Access Protocols

ALOHA:
• A simple protocol where devices transmit data whenever they have it. If
a collision occurs, they wait for a random time before retrying.
• Variants:
▪ Pure ALOHA: Allows transmission at any time, leading to a high
collision probability (maximum efficiency of 18.4%).
▪ Slotted ALOHA: Time is divided into discrete slots, reducing
collisions and increasing efficiency (maximum efficiency of
36.8%).
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):
• Devices listen to the channel before transmitting to avoid collisions.
• Variants:
▪ CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): Used in wired networks (e.g.,
Ethernet); devices detect collisions and retransmit after a
random back-off.
▪ CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Used in wireless networks
(e.g., Wi-Fi); avoids collisions by using acknowledgments and
waiting.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

• Function: Resolves IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network.

• Operation:
 h. A device broadcasts an ARP request asking for the MAC address
associated with a specific IP address.
i. The device that owns the IP address replies with its MAC address,
allowing the requester to communicate directly.

Byte Stuffing

• Definition: A method used to prevent confusion in data streams by inserting

special byte values into the data.
• How It Works:
• Whenever a special byte (used for framing) appears in the data, it is
"stuffed" by adding an escape byte before it.
• The receiver recognizes the escape sequence and processes it correctly,
ensuring data integrity.

Bit Stuffing

• Definition: A technique used in data communication to ensure that the data

stream remains synchronized and does not contain patterns that can be
misinterpreted.
• How It Works:
• Whenever a sequence of five consecutive bits of a certain value (usually
'1') is detected in the data stream, a '0' is inserted after the fifth bit.
• The receiver removes the stuffed bits during the processing of the data,
maintaining the integrity of the original message