QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
(PART 1)
Professor: Mónica Tamayo
Department of Human and Social Sciences
Saldaña (2016) indicates some steps for qualitative data analysis:
Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing
interviews or typing up fieldnotes.
Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or
repeated ideas that emerge.
Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish
a set of codes that you can apply to categorize your data.
Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative analysis, this
may mean going through each participant’s responses and tagging
them with codes in a spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you
can create new codes to add to your system if necessary.
Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive,
overarching themes.
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Coding Qualitative Data
Coding is a qualitative data analysis strategy in which
some aspect of the data is assigned a descriptive label
that allows the researcher to identify related content
across the data (Elliott, 2018).
Coding can be defined as the labeling and organizing of
qualitative data to identify themes and patterns. The
purpose of coding is to provide structure to free-form
data so that it can be examined in a systematic way
(Holton, 2011).
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What is code?
A code is most often a word or short phrase that
symbolically assigns a summative, salient,
essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a
portion of language-based or visual data. The data
can consist of interview transcripts, participant
observation field notes, journals, documents,
literature, artifacts, photographs, video, websites,
e-mail correspondence, and so on.
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CODING FOR QUALITATIVE DATA
A code in a qualitative enquiry is most often a word or short phrase.
In the table below an example is given (Saldaña, 2013).
INTERVIEW: DATA CODING
Name of the interviewer:
Question 1: How do you feel about developing tasks in groups?
Final Coding
RAW DATA
Preliminary Coding
Write the responses of each participant
here. They do not have to be complete
answers from the interview, only some
relevant quotes.
Participant 1: “I like to do my part of No interest in working with
the group work only, I do not know others Lack of commitment to
about the others.” group work
Participant 2: “ I do not care about what No engagement with group
the other members do, I just contribute dynamics
with the task if I am asked.”
Question 2: (Write the question) etc….
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Coding is an important step in moving from the raw data to the findings. Saldaña
(2016) suggests the following steps:
First pass: Researchers first read through or listen to all the data and assign codes to
general phrases, ideas or categories that surface. The codes might represent the
participant’s own words, a label, description, definition, or category name.
Line-by-line coding: In the second pass through the data, the researcher should comb
through the data line-by-line, refining the list of codes and adding detail. While the
first pass at coding is fast and loose, this second round is about reanalyzing,
renaming, merging codes, finding patterns, and getting closer to developing
theories and concepts.
Creating categories and themes: After line-by-line coding, it is time to start grouping
codes into categories and developing themes. Codes might be grouped according
to similarity or if they pertain to the same topic or general concept. The researcher
then looks through the categories, looking closely for any themes or patterns that
emerge across the data set. Within these themes lies the overall narrative of the
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research.
INTERVIEW: DATA CODING
Name of the interviewer:
Question 1: How do you feel about developing tasks in groups?
Final Coding
RAW DATA
Preliminary Coding
Write the responses of each participant
here. They do not have to be complete
answers from the interview, only some
relevant quotes.
Participant 1: “I like to do my part of No interest in working with
the group work only, I do not know others Lack of commitment to
about the others.” group work
Participant 2: “ I do not care about what No engagement with group
the other members do, I just contribute dynamics
with the task if I am asked.”
Question 2: (Write the question) etc….
Research Topic
The effect of remote learning on student engagement in high school.
Data Collection Method: Focus group
ASSIGNED CODES (FINAL CODINGS) CATEGORIES
•Engagement strategies: Strategies used by teachers
to engage students.
•Methodological Approaches used by teachers. Strategies and Innovative Teaching Methods to
•Barriers and problem faced in keeping students engange and help students adapt to technology
engaged.
•Students´ emotional and social effects of remote Student autonomy and Responsibility
learning
•Challenges to adaptation where technical Technical and Logistical Challenges to adapt to
problems appeared. technology, internet access, and the logistics of
•Student participation: in different individual and remote learning
group activities.
•Teacher comment on students´ level of The effects of remote learning on students'
responsiblity ability to manage time, their emotional well-
•Adaptation to technology: How teachers and being and social interactions
students adapted to remote learning tools.
•Effect of remote learning on students to manage
their time, stay motivated.
THEMES (The quotes from participants support each theme)
- Strategies and Innovative Teaching Methods: "To keep students engaged, I
started using interactive quizzes and breakout rooms for group discussions.
It made a significant difference.“
- Technical and Logistical Challenges: "Many students struggled with
poor internet connections, making it hard to fully participate in online
classes.“
- Student Autonomy and Responsibility: “Remote learning encourages
autonomy in students and leads them to take responsibility for their
learning.”
- The effects of remote learning on students' ability to manage time,
their emotional well- being, and social interactions: “Students must
look for strategies to manage their time and what they study must
motivate them.”
“There are students who have difficulties managing their time between
social life, family, and study responsibilities.“
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
(PART 2)
PROFESSOR: MONICA TAMAYO
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
Qualitative Analysis Methods
1. Content Analysis.- is used to evaluate patterns within a piece of content (for
example, words, phrases or images) or across multiple pieces of content or sources
of communication. For example, a collection of newspaper articles or political
speeches.
2. Narrative Analysis.- all about listening to people telling stories and analysing what
that means. Since stories serve a functional purpose of helping us make sense of the
world, we can gain insights into the ways that people deal with and make sense of
reality by analysing their stories and the ways they’re told.
3. Discourse Analysis.- is all about analysing language within its social context. In
other words, analysing language – such as a conversation, a speech, etc – within
the culture and society
4. Thematic Analysis.- looks at patterns of meanings in a data set. It takes bodies of
data (transcriptions) and groups them categories – in other words, themes. These
themes help us make sense of the content and derive meaning from it.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative
Research in Psychology, 3, 77–101.
IDENTIFYING THEMES FROM CODED DATA IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Identifying themes from coded data is a crucial step in qualitative research, providing insight and understanding
of the research topic. The following outlines the process and provides an example in the field of education.
1. Data Collection
Collect qualitative data through interviews, focus groups, observations, or document analysis. Ensure the data
is rich and relevant to the research questions.
2. Transcription
Transcribe the collected data verbatim. This is essential for an accurate and thorough analysis.
3. Initial Reading
Read through the transcripts multiple times to become familiar with the data. Note initial impressions and
recurring ideas.
4. Coding
Assign labels (codes) to segments of the data that relate to your research questions. This can be done
manually or with qualitative data analysis software like NVivo or Atlas.ti.
5. Organize Codes
Group similar codes together to form categories. This helps identify patterns and connections in the data.
6. Identify Themes
Themes are broader patterns that emerge from the categories. They represent significant concepts or insights
related to your research questions.
7. Review and Refine Themes
Review the identified themes, ensure they are supported by the data, (participants´ answers) and refine them if
necessary. Merge similar themes or break down broad themes into more specific ones.
8. Define and Name Themes
Clearly define each theme and give it a descriptive name. This helps in conveying the essence of the theme.
9. Reporting
Report the themes with supporting quotes and evidence from the data. This provides a comprehensive
understanding of the findings.
INTERVIEW: DATA CODING
Name of the interviewer:
Question 1: How do you feel about developing tasks in groups?
Final Coding
RAW DATA
Preliminary Coding
Write the responses of each participant
here. They do not have to be complete
answers from the interview, only some
relevant quotes.
Participant 1: “I like to do my part of the No interest in working with
group work only, I do not know about others Lack of commitment to
the others.” group work
Participant 2: “ I do not care about what No engagement with group
the other members do, I just contribute dynamics
with the task if I am asked.”
Question 2: (Write the question) etc….
EXAMPLE IN THE FIELD OF EDUCATION
Research Topic
The effect of remote learning on student engagement in high school. Data Collection: Focus group
ASSIGNED CODES (FINAL CODINGS) CATEGORIES
•Engagement strategies used by teachers to engage
students.
•Methodological Approaches used by teachers. Strategies and Innovative Teaching Methods to
•Barriers and problem faced in keeping students engange and help students adapt to technology
engaged.
•Students´ emotional and social effects of remote Student autonomy and Responsibility
learning
•Challenges to adaptation where technical Technical and Logistical Challenges to adapt to
problems appeared. technology, internet access, and the logistics of
•Student participation in different individual and remote learning
group activities.
•Teacher comment on students´ level of The effects of remote learning on students' ability to
responsiblity manage time, their emotional well-being and social
•Adaptation to technology on how teachers and interactions
students adapted to remote learning tools.
•Effect of remote learning on students to manage
their time, stay motivated.
THEMES (The quotes (raw data) from participants support each theme)
- Strategies and Innovative Teaching Methods: "To keep students engaged, I started using
interactive quizzes and breakout rooms for group discussions. It made a significant
difference.“
- Technical and Logistical Challenges: "Many students struggled with poor internet connections, making
it hard to fully participate in online classes.“
- Student Autonomy and Responsibility: “Remote learning encourages autonomy in students and leads
them to take responsibility for their learning.”
- The effects of remote learning on students' ability to manage time, their emotional well-
being, and social interactions: “Students must look for strategies to manage their time and
what they study must motivate them.”
“There are students who have difficulties managing their time between social life, family, and study
responsibilities.“
“The overwhelming situation of not being able to manage the responsibilities can affect the social and
emotional well-being, that is why supporting positive behaviors can help face these challenges.”
QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
(PART 3)
PROFESSOR: MONICA TAMAYO
DEPARTMENT OF HUMAN AND SOCIAL SCIENCES
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS/RESULTS
➢ When presenting the results, highlight the most important ones only.
➢The results should answer your research question.
➢In the discussion section, indicate the significance of the results. It answers
the question, “Why did we get the results we did?” This section provides
logical explanations for the results from the study.
➢Be aware that the explanations are often reached by comparing and
contrasting the results to prior studies’ findings, so citations to the studies
discussed in the Literature Review generally reappear here.
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RESULTS/FINDINGS AND
DISCUSSION?
The results/findings section simply and
objectively reports what you found, (charts,
figures, tables, etc.) without speculating on why
you found these results whereas the discussion
interprets the meaning of the results, puts them
in context, explains their significance and why
they matter.
IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DISCUSSION OF RESULTS.
➢ Your focus is to respond your objective/research question.
➢ You’re going in-depth with your findings, discussing their meaning, importance, and relevance.
You’re focusing on explaining your results.
➢ Your aim is to ensure your readers understand your results, how they answer the research
questions, and their significance to them. This section contextualizes your results with previous
research and quotes from participants, considers possible explanations, and argues your
position.
➢ In the case of an academic/ scientific report, it is written using both the simple past tense to
summarize findings, and the simple present tense to interpret the results and make them
relevant or significant to readers now.
CONSIDERATIONS (CONTINUED…)
You can use speculations and deductive arguments. It is common, therefore, to use
language of caution or uncertainty (known as hedging language). The verbs
“appear” and “seem” may be used to express uncertainty.
Introductory phrases
EXAMPLE:
•It is apparent that ...
➢ Results show that participants might be less inclined to
•It may be perceived that ...
•It is possible that ……. practice the language if …
•The results show that ….. ➢ This seems to indicate that …
•It appears that ……
➢ It appears that the use of traditional
•It seems that……………
•This suggests that… methodologies caused demotivation in students.
•In line with ….., the findings suggest….. ➢ ‘Results seem to indicate that there was a …
•The interview data reveal that ……
➢ This suggests that … On the other hand, there may be a
•These results may reflect…..
•The findings could indicate….. ➢ This can possibly be explained by …
•These results may be an indicative of……
EXAMPLE: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
QUALITATIVE FINDINGS
The data obtained from the focus group coding allowed researchers to identify four relevant THEMES
about the effects of collaborative work in the learning of the English subject, which are: individual
contribution of knowledge and opinions for educational purposes, virtual tools for synchronous
and asynchronous collaborative work, development of productive English skills: speaking and writing
and development of receptive English skills: listening and reading.
Individual contribution of knowledge and opinions for educational purposes.
The students affirmed that in an educational collaborative work both opinions and individual personalities
are involved to obtain an idea together and develop a complete and orderly work. They also mentioned
that the members of the group help each other and even discuss a topic and that while doing so they
enrich their knowledge and improve their learning.The results seem to indicate that in order to
complete collaborative educational work, an individual contribution from all the members of the group is
needed to ensure solid knowledge, therefore the total contribution of the members ensures the success
of their activity. As one of the participants stated: “I enjoy it, I tend to be indecisive. In a group we can
discuss different aspects of the problem we’re working on and come to an agreement on the best way to
handle it”. This is in line with Davidson and Major (2014) who mention that all elements of collaborative
projects must fit together in an interdependent way to create an efficient learning environment.
THEME EXAMPLE
SUMMARY
OF
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
SUPPORT
WITH
LITERATURE
(REFERENCES
IMPORTANCE OF USING QUOTES IN THE DISCUSSION SECTION OF THE REPORT
Using quotes from participants in the discussion section of qualitative research is crucial for several
reasons:
Supporting Interpretation: Direct quotes provide concrete evidence to back up the researcher’s analysis
and interpretations.
Authenticity: Direct quotes allow participants' voices to be heard, reflecting their genuine experiences
and perspectives.
Illustration of Themes: They help illustrate patterns or themes emerging from the data, adding richness
and depth to your findings.
Providing Depth: They allow readers to understand the context and emotions behind responses,
adding richness to the discussion.
Transparency: Including participant quotes enhances transparency, showing how your conclusions are
directly drawn from the data.
These quotes validate the researcher's interpretations while maintaining the integrity of the
participants' perspectives.
Theme: Peer Support Enhances Language Development
In collaborative learning settings, students perceived their peers as valuable
resources for language acquisition. They mentioned that peer interaction fosters
meaningful communication and reduces anxiety in language learning. One
participant described how working with classmates boosted confidence: "When I
don’t know a word, my friends help me. They explain in simple English, so I
understand better. This makes me feel more comfortable speaking“. This
statement appears to highlight how peer interactions facilitate comprehension and
reduce anxiety. Similarly, another student emphasized the benefits of group
discussions: "Sometimes, I am afraid to speak in front of the teacher, but in a
group, I can practice first. It helps me prepare my ideas". It seems that
collaborative work creates a supportive environment where learners can gain
confidence through peer-assisted learning. These findings align with previous
research done by Storch (2013) which emphasizes collaborative learning promotes
active engagement and language development by providing opportunities for
negotiation of meaning and scaffolding.
EXAMPLE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
INTRODUCTORY
PARAGRAPH
THEME
SUMMARY
OF
RESULTS
QUOTE FROM SUPPORT
PARTICIPANTS WITH
LITERATURE
(REFERENCES)
DISCUSSION
THEME
SUMMARY
OF
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
QUOTE FROM
PARTICIPANTS
SUPPORT
WITH
LITERATURE
(REFERENCES)
EXAMPLE
Introducing the
Themes for
discussion
SUMMARY
Discussion of OF
the first theme RESULTS
DISCUSSION
SUPPORT
WITH
LITERATURE
(REFERENCES)
THEME
DISCUSSION
OF THE
THEME
THEME
DISCUSSION
OF THE
THEME
FINAL REPORT
A final report in a research paper contains several key sections that collectively present the research
in a structured and comprehensive manner. Here’s a detailed outline of what a final report typically
includes:
1. Title Page: Title of the research paper. Author(s) name(s). Date of submission
2. Introduction: Statement of the research problem, objective and research questions.
3. Literature Review: A review of existing research related to the topic.
4. Methodology: Detailed description of the research design, context, participants, data
collection methods, and analysis.
5. Findings and Discussion: Presentation of the findings of the study, interpretation of the
results, and support with previous research.
6. Conclusion: Summary of the main findings, limitations, recommendations for future
research, and final thoughts.
7. References: A list of all sources cited in the report. Follow a specific citation style (e.g.,
APA)
8. Annexes: Additional material that supports the report
CONCLUSION
A conclusion in a research report is the final
section that summarizes the main findings,
highlights the significance of the study, and
suggests possible future research directions. It
provides closure and helps readers
understand the implications of the research.
STEPS TO WRITE A CONCLUSION
1. Restate the Main Findings:
Start by stating the objective of your research
Summarize the key results of your research.
Avoid simply repeating what has already been stated in the results section.
2. Discuss the Implications:
Explain the importance of your findings.
Highlight how your study contributes to the existing body of knowledge.
3. Limitations:
Acknowledge any limitations in your study.
Explain how these limitations might have affected your results.
4. Recommendations:
Suggest practical applications of your findings.
Provide recommendations for future research.
5. Final Thoughts:
Offer a concluding statement that leaves a lasting impression on the reader.
EXAMPLE OF A CONCLUSION
This phenomenological study explored the lived experiences of first-year college students adapting to the
academic and social demands of university life. The study was carried out with 7 participants through in-
depth interviews that helped capture the essence of their transition from high school to higher education.
The findings reveal three core themes that characterize the students' experiences. Firstly, the initial
adjustment period was marked by feelings of anxiety and excitement, with students grappling with
increased academic expectations and newfound independence. The participants reported that effective
time management and self-discipline were crucial in navigating their new academic environment. Those who
had developed these skills in high school found the transition smoother compared to those who had not.
Secondly, social integration emerged as a significant factor in the students' overall adjustment. Participants
highlighted the importance of forming supportive peer relationships and engaging in campus activities.
These social connections provided emotional support and facilitated a sense of belonging, which was
essential for their well-being and academic success.
Thirdly, the role of faculty and institutional support was underscored as a critical element in the students'
adaptation process. Positive interactions with faculty members and access to academic resources, such as
tutoring and counseling services, significantly contributed to the students' academic confidence and success.
EXAMPLE OF A CONCLUSION CONTINUED…
These findings suggest that successful adaptation involves a complex interplay of personal, social, and institutional
factors. Students who effectively manage their time and build supportive peer networks tend to experience a
smoother transition. Despite the challenges, most participants expressed a sense of personal growth and increased
resilience by the end of their first year. They noted that the experience had taught them valuable life skills, such
as problem-solving, adaptability, and self-advocacy.
The study's findings are based on a small sample size from a single institution, which may limit the generalizability
of the results. Further research could investigate the experiences of students from diverse backgrounds and at
different types of institutions to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the adaptation process.
Overall, this study underscores the importance of holistic support for first-year students, highlighting the need for
targeted interventions to foster their academic and social success.
