SSM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

KOMARAPALAYAM- 638 183.

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

CS3501 – COMPILER DESIGN LABORATORY

(Regulations 2021)

SEMESTER V
(ACADEMIC YEAR 2024-25)

RECORD NOTE BOOK

REGISTER NUMBER

NAME OF THE STUDENT

1
 SSM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
KOMARAPALAYAM- 638183.

Department of Computer Science and Engineering Compute network

Laboratory Record. NAME:_________________________________
COURSE : B.E (CSE) REGISTENO:__________________________
YEAR : III YearV Sem

Certified that this is bonafide record of work done by the above

student of the CS3501 – Compiler Design Laboratory during the
year 2024-2025.

Signature of Lab in Charge Signature of Head of the

Department

Submitted for the Practical examination held on

2
 Internal Examiner ExternalExaminer
INDEX
SI NAME OF PAGE
NO DATE THEEXPERIMENT NO MARK SIGN

1 02-09-2024 Symbol table 4

2 09-09-2024 Lexical analysis recognize in c 8

20-09-2024 16
3 Lexical analyzer using lex tool

Generate yacc specification for

a few 21
4 27-09-2024 Syntactic categories:
Arithmetic expression that uses
operator +,-,* and /.

04-10-2024 Letter followed by any number 25

5
of letters or digits

14-10-2024 28
6 Calculator using lex and yacc

7 21-10-2024 Type Checking 31

28-10-2024 Control flow analysis and 38

8
data flow analysis

Implementation of any one 42

9 11-11-2024 storage allocation strategies(heap,
stack, static)

10 18-11-2024 Construction of DAG 46

25-11-2024 51
11 Implement the back end of the
compiler

25-11-2024 55
12 Simple code optimization

3
 Ex No:1
Date: Symbol table

AIM:
To write a C program to implement a symbol table.

INTRODUCTION:

A Symbol table is a data structure used by a language translator such as a compiler or

interpreter, where each identifier in a program’s source code is associated with information
relating to its declaration or appearance in the source
Possible entries in a symbol table:
Name : a string
Attribute:
1. Reserved word
2. Variable name
3. Type Name
4. Procedure name
5. Constant name
6. Data type
 Scope information: where it can be used.
 Storage allocation

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the Program.

2. Get the input from the user with the terminating symbol ‘$’.
3. Allocate memory for the variable by dynamic memory allocation function.
4. If the next character of the symbol is an operator then only the memory is allocated.
5. While reading , the input symbol is inserted into symbol table along with its
memory address.
6. The steps are repeated till”$”is reached.
7. stop

4
 SYMBOL TABLE:

PROGRAM: ( IMPLEMENTATION OF SYMBOL TABLE)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<malloc.h>
#include<string.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<ctype.h>
voidmain() {
int i = 0 , j = 0 , x = 0 ,n, flag=0;
void*p, *add [15];
char ch,srch,b[15],d[15],c;
//clrscr();
printf ("expression terminated by $:");
while(( c = 1 getchar())!='$')
{
5
 b[i]=c; i++;
}
n = i – 1;
printf ("givenexpression:");
i = 0;
while(i<=n)
{
printf("%c",b[i]);
i++;
}
printf("symbol table\n");
printf("symbol\taddr\ttype\n");
while (j<=n)
{
c=b[j];
if (isalpha (toascii(c)))
{
if (j==n)
{
p=malloc(c);
add [x]=p; d[x]=c;
printf("%c\t%d\tidentifier\n",c,p);
} else
{
ch=b[j+1];
if (ch=='+'|| ch=='-'|| ch=='*' || ch=='=')
x++; } }
{ p=malloc(c);
add [x]=p;
d [x]=c;
printf("%c\t%d\tidentifier\n",c,p);
}
j++;
}
printf("the symbol is to be searched\n");
srch=getch(); for(i=0;i<=x;i++)
{
if (srch==d(i)) { printf("symbol printf ("%c%s%d\n",srch, "@address", add[i]) ; flag=1; found\n");
}}
if (flag==0) printf("symbol not found\n");
//getch();

6
OUTPUT:

RESULT:

Thus the C program to implement the symbol table was executed and the output is verified.

7
 Ex No:2
Date: DEVELOP A LEXICAL ANALYZER TO
RECOGNIZE A FEW PATTERNS IN C

AIM:

To Write a C program to develop a lexical analyzer to recognize a few patterns in C.

INTRODUCTION:

Lexical analysis is the process of converting a sequence of characters (such as in a computer

program of web page) into a sequence of tokens (strings with an identified“meaning”). A program
that perform lexical analysis may be called a lexical tokenize or scanner

TOKEN:
A token is a structure representing a lexeme that explicitly indicates its categorization for the Purpose
of parsing. A category of token is what in linguistics might be called a par-tof- speech. Examples of
token categories may include “identifier” and “integer literal”, althoughthe set of Token differ in
different programming languages.
The process of forming tokens from an input stream of characters is called tokenization.

Consider this expression in the C programming language: Sum=3 + 2;

Tokenized and represented by the following table:
8
 Lexeme Token category
Sum “identifier”
= “assignment operator”
3 “integer literal”
+ “addition operator”
2 “integer literal”
; “end of the statement”

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program

2. Include the header files.
3. Allocate memory for the variable by dynamic memory allocation function.
4. Use the file accessing functions to read the file.
5. Get the input file from the user.
6. Separate all the file contents as tokens and match it with the functions.
7. Define all the keywords in a separate file and name it as key.c
8. Define all the operators in a separate file and name it as open.c
9. Give the input program in a file and name it as input.c 10. Finally print the output
after recognizing all the tokens.
11. Stop the program.

PROGRAM: (DEVELOP A LEXICAL ANALYZER TO RECOGNIZE A FEW

PATTERNS IN C)
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
FILE *fi,*fo,*fop,*fk;
int flag=0,i=1;
char c,t,a[15],ch[15],file[20];
clrscr();
9
printf("\n Enter the File Name:");
scanf("%s",&file);
fi=fopen(file,"r");
fo=fopen("inter.c","w");
fop=fopen("oper.c","r");
fk=fopen("key.c","r");
c=getc(fi);
while(!feof(fi))
{
if(isalpha(c)||isdigit(c)||(c=='['||c==']'||c=='.'==1))
fputc(c,fo);
else {
if(c=='\n')
fprintf(fo,"\t$\t");
else fprintf(fo,"\t%c\t",c);
}
c=getc(fi);
}
fclose(fi);
fclose(fo);
fi=fopen("inter.c","r");
printf("\n Lexical Analysis");
fscanf(fi,"%s",a);
printf("\n Line: %d\n",i++);
while(!feof(fi))
{
if(strcmp(a,"$")==0)
{
printf("\n Line: %d \n",i++);
fscanf(fi,"%s",a);
}
fscanf(fop,"%s",ch);
while(!feof(fop))
{

10
if(strcmp(ch,a)==0)
{
fscanf(fop,"%s",ch);
printf("\t\t%s\t:\t%s\n",a,ch);
flag=1;
}
fscanf(fop,"%s",ch);
}
rewind(fop);
fscanf(fk,"%s",ch);
while(!feof(fk))
{
if(strcmp(ch,a)==0)
{
fscanf(fk,"%k",ch);
printf("\t\t%s\t:\tKeyword\n",a);
flag=1; }
fscanf(fk,"%s",ch);
}
rewind(fk);
if(flag==0)
{
if(isdigit(a[0]))
printf("\t\t%s\t:\tConstant\n",a);
else
printf("\t\t%s\t:\tIdentifier\n",a);
}
flag=0;
fscanf(fi,"%s",a);
}
getch();
}
Key.C:
int

11
void
main
char
if for
while
else
printf
scanf
FILE
Includ
e
stdio.
h
conio.
h
iostre
am.h
Oper.C
:
( open para
) closepara
{ openbrace
} closebrace
< lesser
> greater
" doublequote ' singlequote
: colon
; semicolon
# preprocessor
= equal
== asign
% percentage
^ bitwise
& reference

12
* star
+ add
- sub
\ backslash
/ slash
Input.C:
#include
"stdio.h"
#include
"conio.h" void
main() { int
a=10,b,c; a=b*c;
getch();
}

OUTPUT:

13
14
 RESULT:

Thus the above program for developing the lexical the lexical analyzer and recognizing
the few pattern s in C is executed successfully and the output is verified.

Ex no:3
IMPLEMENTATION OF LEXICAL ANALYZER USING LEX TOOL
15
Date:

AIM:

To write a program to implement the Lexical Analyzer using lex tool.

INTRODUCTION:

THEORY:

 A language for specifying lexical analyzer.

 There is a wide range of tools for construction of lexical analyzer. The majority of
these tools are based on regular expressions.
 The one of the traditional tools of that kind is lex.
LEX:
 The lex is used in the manner depicted. A specification of the lexical analyzer is
preferred by creating a program lex.1 in the lex language.
 Then lex.1 is run through the lex compiler to produce a ‘c’ program lex.yy.c.
 The program lex.yy.c consists of a tabular representation of a transition diagram
constructed from the regular expression of lex.1 together with a standard routine that
uses table of recognize leximes.
 Lex.yy.c is run through the ‘C’ compiler to produce as object program a.out, which is
the lexical analyzer that transform as input stream into sequence of tokens.

ALGORITHM:

16
 1. Start the program
2. Lex program consists of three parts.
3. Declaration %% 4. Translation rules %%
5. Auxiliary procedure.
6. The declaration section includes declaration of variables, main test, constants and
regular
7. Definitions.
8. Translation rule of lex program are statements of the form
9. P1{action}
10. P2{action}
11. …..
12. …..
13. Pn{action}
14. Write program in the vi editor and save it with .1 extension.
15. Compile the lex program with lex compiler to produce output file as lex.yy.c.
16. Eg. $ lex filename.1
17. $gcc lex.yy.c-11
18. Compile that file with C compiler and verify the output.

LEX SOURCE:

PROGRAM: (LEXICAL ANALYZER USING LEX TOOL)

17
#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h> char
vars[100][100];
int vcnt;
char input[1000],c;
char token[50],tlen;
int state=0,pos=0,i=0,id;
char *getAddress(char str[])
{
for(i=0;i<vcnt;i++)
if(strcmp(str,vars[i])==0)
return vars[i];
strcpy(vars[vcnt],str);
return vars[vcnt++];
}
int isrelop(char c)
{
if(c=='+'||c=='-'||c=='*'||c=='/'||c=='%'||c=='^')
return 1;
else
return 0;
}
int main(void)
{
clrscr();
printf("Enter the Input String:");
gets(input);
do
{
c=input[pos];
putchar(c);
switch(state)
{
case 0:
if(isspace(c))
printf("\b");
if(isalpha(c))
{
token[0]=c;
tlen=1;
state=1;
}

18
if(isdigit(c))
state=2;
if(isrelop(c))
state=3; if(c==';')
printf("\t<3,3>\n");
if(c=='=')
printf("\t<4,4>\n");
break;
case 1:
if(!isalnum(c)) {
token[tlen]='\o';
printf("\b\t<1,%p>\n",getAddress(token));
state=0;
pos--;
}
else
token[tlen++]=c;
break;
case 2:
if(!isdigit(c))
{
printf("\b\t<2,%p>\n",&input[pos]);
state=0;
pos--;
}
break;
case 3:
id=input[pos-1];
if(c=='=')
printf("\t<%d,%d>\n",id*10,id*10);
else
{
printf("\b\t<%d,%d>\n",id,id);
pos--;
}
state=0;
break;
}
pos++;
}
while(c!=0);
getch();
return 0;
}
OUTPUT

19
RESULT:
Thus the program for the exercise on lexical analysis using lex has been successfully
executed and output is verified.

20
Ex No:4
ENERATE YACC SPECIFICATION FOR A FEW SYNTACTIC
Date:
CATEGORIES.

AIM :
To write a c program to do exercise on syntax analysis using YACC.
INTRODUCTION :
YACC (yet another compiler) is a program designed to produce designed to
compile a LALR (1) grammar and to produce the source code of the synthetically
analyses of the language produced by the grammar.

ALGORITHM :
1. Start the program.
2. Write the code for parser. l in the declaration port.
3. Write the code for the ‘y’ parser.
4. Also write the code for different arithmetical operations.
5. Write additional code to print the result of computation.
6. Execute and verify it.
7. Stop the program.

PROGRAM TO RECOGNIZE A VALID ARITHMETIC EXPRESSION THAT USES

OPERATOR +, - , * AND /.

PROGRAM:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
char s[5];

21
clrscr();
printf("\n Enter any operator:");
gets(s);
switch(s[0])
{
case'>':
if(s[1]=='=')
printf("\n Greater than or equal");
else
printf("\n Greater than");
break;
case'<':
if(s[1]=='=')
printf("\n Less than or equal");
else
printf("\nLess than");
break;
case'=':
if(s[1]=='=')
printf("\nEqual to");
else
printf("\nAssignment");
break;
case'!':
if(s[1]=='=')
printf("\nNot Equal");
else
printf("\n Bit Not");
break;
case'&':
if(s[1]=='&')

22
printf("\nLogical AND");
else
printf("\n Bitwise AND");
break;
case'|':
if(s[1]=='|')
printf("\nLogical OR");
else
printf("\nBitwise OR");
break;
case'+':
printf("\n Addition");
break;
case'-':
printf("\nSubstraction");
break;
case'*':
printf("\nMultiplication");
break;
case'/':
printf("\nDivision");
break;
case'%':
printf("Modulus");
break;
default:
printf("\n Not a operator");
}
getch();
}

23
OUTPUT:

RESULT:

Thus the program for the exercise on the syntax using YACC has been executed
successfully and Output is verified.

24
Ex No:5 PROGRAM TO RECOGNISE A VALID VARIABLE WHICH
STARTS WITH A LETTER FOLLOWED BY ANY NUMBER OF
Date: LETTERS OR DIGITS

PROGRAM :
variable_test.l
%{
/* This LEX program returns the tokens for the Expression */
#include "y.tab.h"
%}
%%
"int " {return INT;}
"float" {return FLOAT;}
"double" {return DOUBLE;
}
[a-zAZ][0-9]
{
printf("\nIdentifier is %s",yytext);
return ID;
}
return yytext[0];
\n return 0;
int yywrap()
{
return 1;
}

25
variable_test.y%
{
#include
/* This YACC program is for recognising the Expression*/
%}
%token ID INT FLOAT DOUBLE
%%
D;T L;
L:L,ID
|ID;
T:INT|FLOAT|DOUBLE;
%% extern FILE *yyin;
main()
{
do
{
yyparse();
}while(!feof(yyin);
}
yyerror(char*s)
{
}

26
OUTPUT:

RESULT:
Thus the program for the exercise on the syntax using YACC has been executed
successfully and Output is verified.

27
Ex No:6
Date:
IMPLEMENTATION OF CALCULATOR USING LEX AND YACC

PROGRAM:
%{
#include<stdio.h>
int op=0,i;
float a,b;
%}
dig[0-9]+|([0-9]*)"."([0-9]+)
add "+" sub "-" mul"*" div "/" pow "^" ln \n%%
{dig}{digi();}
{add}{op=1;}
{sub}{op=2;}
{mul}{op=3;}
{div}{op=4;}
{pow}{op=5;}
{ln}{printf("\n the result:%f\n\n",a);
}
%% digi()
{
if(op==0)
a=atof(yytext);
else {
b=atof(yytext);
switch(op) {
28
case 1:a=a+b;
break;
case 2:a=a-b;
break;
case 3:
a=a*b;
break; case
4:a=a/b;
break;
case 5:
for(i=a;b>1;b--)
a=a*i;
break;
}
op=0;
}}
main(int argv,char *argc[])
{
yylex();
}
yywrap()
{
return 1;
}

29
OUTPUT:

Lex cal.l Cc

lex.yy.c-ll a.out

4*8

The result is : 32

RESULT:

Thus the program for the exercise on the syntax using YACC has been
executedSuccessfully and Output is verified.

30
Ex No:7 CONVERT THE BNF RULES INTO YACC FORM AND WRITE
Date: CODE TO GENERATE ABSTRACT SYNTAX TREE USING AND
YACC.

AIM:

To write a program to convert the BNF rules into YACC

INTRODUCTION:

BNF-Backus Naur form is formal notationfor encoding grammars intended for human

Consumption. Many programming languages, protocol or formats have BNF description

in their Specification.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program.

2. Declare the declarations as a header file.
{include<ctype.h>}
3. Token digit
4. Define the translations rule like line,expr,term,factor.
Line:exp”\n”{print”\n%d\n”,$1)}
Expr:expr”+”term($$=$1=$3} Term:term”+”factor($
$=$1*$3}
Factor
Factor”enter”),{$$=$2)
%%
5. Define the supporting C routines.
6. Execute and verify it.
7. Stop the program.

PROGRAM: (CONVERT THE BNF RULES INTO YACC)

31
<int.l>
%{
#include"y.tab.h"
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
int LineNo=1;
%}
identifier [a- zA-Z][_a-zA-Z0-9]*
number [0-9]+|([0- 9]*\.[0-9]+)
%% main\(\) return
MAIN; if return IF;
else return ELSE;
while return WHILE;
int | char | float
return TYPE;
{
Identifier
}
{
strcpy(yylval.var,yytext);
return VAR;
}
{
Number
}
{
strcpy(yylval.var,yytext);
return NUM;
}
\< |\> |\>= |\<= |==
{
strcpy(yylval.var,yytext);
return RELOP;
}
[ \t] ;
n LineNo++;
return yytext[0];
%%
<int.y>
%{
#include<string.h>
#include<stdio.h>
struct quad
{ char

32
op[5];
char arg1[10];
char arg2[10];
char result[10];
}QUAD[30];
struct stack
{ int
items[100]; int
top;
}stk; int
Index=0,tIndex=0,StNo,Ind,tInd;
extern int LineNo;
%}
%union
{ char var[10];
}
%token <var> NUM VAR RELOP
%token MAIN IF ELSE WHILE TYPE
%type <var> EXPR ASSIGNMENT CONDITION IFST
ELSEST WHILELOOP
%left '-' '+'
%left '*' '/'
%%
PROGRAM : MAIN BLOCK;
BLOCK: '{' CODE '}';
CODE: BLOCK| STATEMENT CODE| STATEMENT;
STATEMENT: DESCT ';'| ASSIGNMENT ';'| CONDST| WHILEST;
DESCT: TYPE VARLIST;
VARLIST: VAR ',' VARLIST| VAR;
ASSIGNMENT: VAR '=' EXPR
{
strcpy(QUAD[Index].op,"=");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg1,$3);
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg2,"");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].result,$1);
strcpy($$,QUAD[Index++].result);
};
EXPR: EXPR '+' EXPR {AddQuadruple("+",$1,$3,$$);}| EXPR '-' EXPR {AddQuadruple("-",
$1,$3,$$);}| EXPR '' EXPR { AddQuadruple("",$1,$3,$$);}| EXPR '/' EXPR { AddQuadruple("/",
$1,$3,$$);}| '-' EXPR { AddQuadruple("UMIN",$2,"",$$);}| '(' EXPR ')' {strcpy($$,$2);}| VAR|
NUM;
CONDST: IFST{ Ind=pop(); sprintf(QUAD[Ind].result,"%d",Index);
Ind=pop();
sprintf(QUAD[Ind].result,"%d",Index);
}

33
| IFST ELSEST
;
IFST: IF '(' CONDITION ')'
{
strcpy(QUAD[Index].op,"==");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg1,$3);
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg2,"FALSE");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].result,"- 1"); push(Index);
Index++;
}
BLOCK { strcpy(QUAD[Index].op,"GOTO");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg1,"");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg2,"");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].result,"- 1");
push(Index);
Index++;
};
ELSEST: ELSE{
tInd=pop(); Ind=pop();
push(tInd); sprintf(QUAD[Ind].result,"%d",Index);
}
BLOCK{ Ind=pop();
sprintf(QUAD[Ind].result,"%d",Index);
};
CONDITION: VAR RELOP VAR {AddQuadruple($2,$1,$3,$$);
StNo=Index- 1;
}| VAR| NUM;
WHILEST: WHILELOOP{ Ind=pop();
sprintf(QUAD[Ind].result,"%d",StNo);
Ind=pop();
sprintf(QUAD[Ind].result,"%d",Index);
};
WHILELOOP: WHILE '(' CONDITION ')' {
strcpy(QUAD[Index].op,"=="); strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg1,$3);
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg2,"FALSE");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].result,"- 1"); push(Index);
Index++;
} BLOCK {
strcpy(QUAD[Index].op,"GOTO");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg1,"");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg2,"");
strcpy(QUAD[Index].result,"- 1"); push(Index);
Index++;
}
; %% extern FILE *yyin; int

34
main(int argc,char *argv[])
{ FILE *fp; int i; if(argc>1)
{ fp=fopen(argv[1],"r");
if(!fp) { printf("\n File not
found"); exit(0); } yyin=fp; }
yyparse();
printf("\n\n\t\t ---------------------""\n\t\tPos Operator Arg1 Arg2 Result" "\n\t\t --------------------");
for(i=0;i<Index;i++)
{
printf("\n\t\t %d\t %s\t %s\t %s\t%s",i,QUAD[i].op,QUAD[i].arg1,QUAD[i].arg2,QUAD[i].result);
printf("\n\t\t -----------------------");
printf("\n\n");
return 0;
}
void push(int data)
{
stk.top++;
if(stk.top==100)
{
printf("\n Stack overflow\n");
exit(0);
}
stk.items[stk.top]=data;
}
int pop()
{
int data;
if(stk.top==- 1)
{
printf("\n Stack underflow\n");
exit(0);
}
data=stk.items[stk.top return data;
}
void AddQuadruple(char result[10])
{ strcpy(QUAD[Index].op,op);
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg1,arg1);
strcpy(QUAD[Index].arg2,arg2);
strcpy(result,QUAD[Index++].result);
} yyerror()
{ printf("\n Error
}
Input: $vi test.c main()
{
int a,b,c; if(a<b) { a=a+b; } while(a<b)

35
{ a=a+b; } if(a<=b)
{ c=a- b;
}
op[5],char arg1[10],char--];
sprintf(QUAD[Index].result,"t%d",tIndex++);
on line no:%d",LineNo);
arg2[10],char
else
{
c=a+b;
}
}

OUTPUT:

36
$ lex int.l

$ yacc –d int.y

$ gcc lex.yy.c y.tab.c –ll –lm

$ ./a.out test.c

RESULT:
Thus the program for the exercise on the syntax using YACC has been executed
successfully and output is verified.

37
Ex No:8 IMPLEMENT CONTROL FLOW ANALYSIS AND DATA FLOW
Date: ANALYSIS

AIM:

To Writs a C program to implement data flow and control flow analysis.

INTRODUCTION:

 Data flow analysis is a technique for gathering information about the possible set of
value calculated at various points in a computer program.
 Control flow analysis can be represent by basic blocks. It depicts how th program
control is being passed among the blocks.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program

2. Declare the necessary variables
3. Get the choice to insert, delete and display the values in stack
4. Perform PUSH() operation
a. t = newnode()
b. Enter info to be inserted
c. Read n
d. t ->info= n
e. t ->next=top
f. top = t
g. Return
5. Perform POP() operation
a. If (top=NULL)
b. Print”underflow”
c. Return
d. X=top
e. Top=top->next

38
 f. Delnode(x)
g. Return
6. Display the values
7. Stop the program

PROGRAM: (DATA FLOW AND CONTROL FLOW ANALYSIS)

#include<conio.h>
struct stack
{
int no;
struct stack *next;
}
*start=null typedef struct stack st;
voidpush();
int pop();
voiddisplay();
voidmain()
{
char ch;
int choice, item;
do {
clrscr();
printf(“\n1:push”);
printf(“\n2:pop”);
printf(“\n3:display”);
printf(“\n enter your choice”);
scanf(“%d”,&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case1:
push();
break;
case2:
item=pop();
printf(“the delete element in %d”,item);
break;
case3:
display();
break;
default:
printf(“\nwrong choice”);
}
printf(“\n do you want to continue(y/n”);
fflush(stdin);
scanf(“%c”,&ch);
39
}
while(ch==’y’||ch==’y’);
}
voidpush()
{
st*node;
node=(st*)malloc(sizeof(st));
printf(“\n enter the number to be insert”);
scanf(“%d”,&node->no);
node->next=start;
start=node;
}
intpop();
{
st*temp;
temp=start;
if(start==null)
{
printf(“stack is already empty”);
getch();
exit();
}
else {
start=start->next;
free(temp);
}
return(temp->no);
}
void display()
{
st*temp;
temp=start;
while(temp->next!=null)
{
printf(“\nno=%d”,temp->no);
temp=temp->next;
}
printf(“\nno=%d”,temp->no);
}

40
OUTPUT:

RESULT:
Thus the C program to implement data flow and control flow analysis was
executed successfully.

41
Ex No:9 IMPLEMENT ANY ONE STORAGE ALLOCATION
Date: STRATEGIES (HEAP,STACK,STATIC)

AIM:
To write a C program for Stack to use dynamic storage allocation.
INTRODUCTION:
Storage Allocation
Runtime environment manages runtime memory requirements for the following entities:
 Code: It is known as the part of a program that does not change at runtime. Its
memory requirements are at the compile time
 Procedures: Their text part is static but they are called in a random manner. That is
why, stack storage is used to manage procedure calls and activations.
 Variables: Variables are known at the runtime only, unless they are global or constant.
Heap memory allocation scheme is used for managing allocation and de-allocation of
memory for variables in runtime.
ALGORITHM:
1. Start the program
2. Enter the expression for which intermediate code is to be generated
3. If the length of the string is greater than 3, than call the procedure to return the
precedence
4. Among the operands.
5. Assign the operand to exp array and operators to the array.
6. Create the three address code using quadruples structure.
7. Reduce the no of temporary variables.
8. Continue this process until we get an output.
9. Stop the program.

42
PROGRAM: (STACK TO USE DYNAMIC STORAGE ALLOCATION)

#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#include <process.h>
#include <alloc.h>
struct node
{
int label;
struct node *next;
}
void main() { int ch = 0; int k;
struct node h, *temp, *head; head = (struct node) malloc(sizeof(struct node));
head->next = NULL;
while(1)
{
printf("\n Stack using Linked List \n");
printf("1->Push ");
printf("2->Pop ");
printf("3->View");
printf("4->Exit \n");
printf("Enter your choice : ");
scanf("%d", &ch);
switch(ch)
{
case 1:
temp=(struct node *)(malloc(sizeof(struct node)));
printf("Enter label for new node : ");
scanf("%d", &temp->label);
h = head; temp->next = h->next; h->next = temp;
break;
case 2:
h = head->next;
head->next = h->next;
printf("Node %s deleted\n", h->label);
free(h);
break;
case 3:
printf("\n HEAD -> ");
h = head;
while(h->next != NULL)
{
h = h->next; printf("%d -> ",h->label);
}
printf("NULL \\n");

43
break;
case 4:
exit(0);
}
}
}

44
OUTPUT:

RESULT:

Thus the program for implement storage allocation to use dynamic process for
stack has been successfully executed.

45
Ex No:10
Date: CONSTRUCTION OF DAG

AIM:
To write a C program to construct of DAG(Directed Acyclic Graph)

INTRODUCTION:

The code optimization is required to produce an efficient target code. These are two important
issues that used to be considered while applying the techniques for code optimization.
They are:
 The semantics equivalences of the source program must not be changed.
 The improvement over the program efficiency must be achieved without changing the
algorithm.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program

2. Include all the header files
3. Check for postfix expression and construct the in order DAG representation
4. Print the output
5. Stop the program

PROGRAM: (TO CONSTRUCT OF DAG(DIRECTED ACYCLIC GRAPH))

#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
struct da
{
int ptr,left,right;
char label;
46
}
dag[25];
int ptr,l,j,change,n=0,i=0,state=1,x,y,k;
char store,*input1,input[25],var;
clrscr();
for(i=0;i<25;i++)
{
dag[i].ptr=NULL;
dag[i].left=NULL;
dag[i].right=NULL;
dag[i].label=NULL;
}
printf("\n\nENTER THE EXPRESSION\n\n");
scanf("%s",input1);
/*EX:((a*b-c))+((b-c)*d)) like this give with paranthesis.limit is 25 char ucan change that*/
for(i=0;i<25;i++) input[i]=NULL;
l=strlen(input1);
a:for(i=0;input1[i]!=')';i++)
for(j=i;input1[j]!='(';j--);
for(x=j+1;x<i;x++)
if(isalpha(input1[x]))
input[n++]=input1[x];
else
if(input1[x]!='0')
store=input1[x];
input[n++]=store;
for(x=j;x<=i;x++)
input1[x]='0';
if(input1[0]!='0')

47
goto a;
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
dag[i].label=input[i]; dag[i].ptr=i;
if(!isalpha(input[i])&&!isdigit(input[i]))
{
dag[i].right=i-1;
ptr=i;
var=input[i-1];
if(isalpha(var))
ptr=ptr-2;
else
{
ptr=i-1;
b:
if(!isalpha(var)&
&!isdigit(var))
{
ptr=dag[ptr].left;
var=input[ptr];
goto b;
}
else
ptr=ptr-1;
}
dag[i].left=ptr;
}}
printf("\n SYNTAX TREE FOR GIVEN EXPRESSION\n\n");
printf("\n\n PTR \t\t LEFT PTR \t\t RIGHT PTR \t\t LABEL\n\n");

48
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
/* draw the syntax tree for the following output with pointer value*/
printf("\n%d\t%d\t%d\t%c\n",dag[i].ptr,dag[i].left,dag[i].right,dag[i].la bel);
getch();
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(j=0;j<n;j++)
{
if((dag[i].label==dag[j].label&&dag[i].left==dag[j].left)&&dag[ i].right==dag[j].right)
{
for(k=0;k<n;k++)
{
if(dag[k].left==dag[j].ptr)dag[k].left=dag[i].ptr;
if(dag[k].right==dag[j].ptr)dag[k].right=dag[i].ptr;
}
dag[j].ptr=dag[i].ptr;
}
} } printf("\n DAG FOR GIVEN EXPRESSION\n\n");
printf("\n\n PTR \t LEFT PTR \t RIGHT PTR \t LABEL \n\n");
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
/*draw DAG for the following output with pointer value*/
printf("\n %d\t\t%d\t\t%d\t\t%c\n",dag[i].ptr,dag[i].left,dag[i].right,dag[i].label);
getch();
}

49
OUTPUT:

RESULT:

Thus the program for implementation of DAG has been successfully executed and output
is verified.

50
Ex No:11
Date: IMPLEMENT THE BACK END OF THE COMPILER

AIM:

To implement the back end of the compiler which takes the three address code and
produces the 8086 assembly language instructions that can be assembled and run using a
8086 assembler. The target assembly instructions can be simple move, add, sub, jump.
Also simple addressing modes are used.

INTRODUCTION:

A compiler is a computer program that implements a programming language specification

to “translate” programs, usually as a set of files which constitute the source code
written in source language, into their equivalent machine readable instructions(the target
language, often having a binary form known as object code). This translation process is
called compilation.

BACK END:
 Some local optimization
 Register allocation
 Peep-hole optimization
 Code generation
 Instruction scheduling
The main phases of the back end include the following:
 Analysis: This is the gathering of program information from the intermediate
representation derived from the input; data-flow analysis is used to build use-define
chains, together with dependence analysis, alias analysis, pointer analysis, escape
analysis etc.
 Optimization: The intermediate language representation is transformed into
functionally equivalent but faster (or smaller) forms. Popular optimizations are
expansion, dead, constant, propagation, loop transformation, register allocation and
even automatic parallelization.
51
  Code generation: The transformed language is translated into the output language,
usually the native machine language of the system. This involves resource and storage
decisions, such as deciding which variables to fit into registers and memory and the
selection and scheduling of appropriate machine instructions along with their
associated modes. Debug data may also need to be generated to facilitate debugging.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program

2. Open the source file and store the contents as quadruples.
3. Check for operators, in quadruples, if it is an arithmetic operator generator it or if
assignment operator generates it, else perform unary minus on register C.

4. Write the generated code into output definition of the file in outp.c
5. Print the output.

6. Stop the program.

PROGRAM: (BACK END OF THE COMPILER)

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
//#include<conio.h>
#include<string.h>
void main()
{
char icode[10][30],str[20],opr[10];
int i=0;
//clrscr();
printf("\n Enter the set of intermediate code (terminated by exit):\n");
do
{
scanf("%s",icode[i]);
52
}
while(strcmp(icode[i++],"exit")!=0);
printf("\n target code generation");
printf("\n**"); i=0;
do
{
strcpy(str,icode[i]); switch(str[3])
{
case '+':
strcpy(opr,"ADD");
break;
case '-':
strcpy(opr,"SUB");
break;
case '*':
strcpy(opr,"MUL");
break;
case '/':
strcpy(opr,"DIV");
break;
}
printf("\n\tMov %c,R%d",str[2],i);
printf("\n\t%s%c,R%d",opr,str[4],i);
printf("\n\tMov R%d,%c",i,str[0]);
}
while(strcmp(icode[++i],"exit")!=0);
//getch();
}

53
OUTPUT:

RESULT:

Thus the program was implemented to the TAC has been successfully executed.

54
Ex No:12
Date:
IMPLEMENTATION OF SIMPLE CODE OPTIMIZATION
TECHNIQUES

AIM:

To write a C program to implement simple code optimization technique.

INTRODUCTION:

Optimization is a program transformation technique, which tries to improve the code by

making it consume less resource (i.e. CPU, memory) and deliver high speed.

In optimization, high-level general programming constructs are replaced by very efficient

low level programming codes. A code optimizing process must follow the three rules
given below:

The output code must not, in any way, change the meaning of the program.

 Optimization should increases the speed of the program and if possible, the program
should demand less number of resources.
 Optimization should itself be fast and fast and should not delay the overall compiling
process.

Efforts for an optimized code can be made at various levels of compiling the process. 
At
the beginning, users can change/rearrange the code or use better algorithms to write
the code.
 After generating intermediate code, the compiler can modify the intermediate code by
address calculations and improving loops.
 While producing the target machine code, the compiler can make use of memory
hierarchy and cpu registers.

Optimization can be categorized broadly into two types: Machine independent and
Machine dependent.

Machine independent optimization

In this optimization, the compiler takes in the intermediate code and transforms a part of
the code that does not involve any CPU registers and/or absolute memory locations.
55
For Example:
do

{ item=10;

value=value+item;
This code involves repeated assignment of the identifier item, which if we put this way:
item=10;

do

value=value+item;

}while(value<100)

Should not only save the cpu cycles, but can be used on any processor.

Machine dependent optimization

Machine dependent optimization is done after the target code has been generated and
when the code is transformed according to the target machine architecture. It involves
CPU registers and may have absolute memory references rather than relative references.
Machinedependent optimizers put efforts to take maximum advantage of memory
hierarchy.

ALGORITHM:

1. Start the program

2. Declare the variables and functions.
3. Enter the expressionand state it in the variable a, b, c.
4. Calculate the variables b & c with ‘temp’ and store it in f1 and f2.
5. If(f1=null && f2=null) then expression could not be optimized.
6. Print the results.
7. Stop the program.

56
PROGRAM: (SIMPLE CODE OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUE)

Before:

Using for :

#include<iostream.h>

#include <conio.h>

int main()

int i, n;

int fact=1;

cout<<"\nEnter a number: "; cin>>n;

for(i=n;i>=1;i--)

fact=fact *i; cout<<"The

factoral value is:

"<<fact; getch(); return

0;

57
OUTPUT:

58
After: (SIMPLE CODE OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUE)

Using do-while:

#include<iostream.h>

#include<conio.h>

void main()
{

clrscr(); int n,f; f=1;

cout<<"Enter the number:\n"; cin>>n;

do

f=f*n; n--;

while(n>0);

cout<<"The factorial value is:"<<f;

getch();

OUTPUT:
59
RESULT:

Thus the Simple Code optimization technique is successfully executed

60