Fundamentals of Programming II Chapter Two: Arrays and Strings

Chapter Two
2. Arrays and Strings
What is An Array?

 A collection of identical data objects, which are stored in consecutive memory locations under
a common heading or a variable name. In other words, an array is a group or a table of values
referred to by the same name. The individual values in array are called elements. Array
elements are also variables.
 Set of values of the same type, which have a single name followed by an index. In C++, square
brackets appear around the index right after the name
 A block of memory representing a collection of many simple data variables stored in a separate
array element, and the computer stores all the elements of an array consecutively in memory.

Properties of arrays:

 Arrays in C++ are zero-bounded; that is the index of the first element in the array is 0 and the
last element is N-1, where N is the size of the array.
 It is illegal to refer to an element outside of the array bounds, and your program will crash or
have unexpected results, depending on the compiler.
 Array can only hold values of one type

Array declaration

 Declaring the name and type of an array and setting the number of elements in an array is
called dimensioning the array. The array must be declared before one uses in like other
variables. In the array declaration one must define:

1. The type of the array (i.e. integer, floating point, char etc.)
2. Name of the array,
3. The total number of memory locations to be allocated or the maximum value of each subscript.
i.e. the number of elements in the array.

 So the general syntax for the declaration is:

DataTypename arrayname [array size];

 The expression array size, which is the number of elements, must be a constant such as 10 or a
symbolic constant declared before the array declaration, or a constant expression such as
10*sizeof (int), for which the values are known at the time compilation takes place.

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Note: array size cannot be a variable whose value is set while the program is running.

 Thus to declare an integer with size of 10 having a name of num is:

int num [10];

This means: ten consecutive two byte memory location will be reserved with the name num.

 That means, we can store 10 values of type int without having to declare 10 different variables
each one with a different identifier. Instead of that, using an array we can store 10 different
values of the same type, int for example, with a unique identifier.

Initializing Arrays

 When declaring an array of local scope (within a function), if we do not specify the array
variable will not be initialized, so its content is undetermined until we store some values in it.
 If we declare a global array (outside any function) its content will be initialized with all its
elements filled with zeros. Thus, if in the global scope we declare:

int day [5];

 Every element of day will be set initially to 0:

 But additionally, when we declare an Array, we have the possibility to assign initial values to
each one of its elements using curly brackets { } . For example:

int day [5] = { 16, 2, 77, 40, 12071 };

 The above declaration would have created an array like the following one:

 The number of elements in the array that we initialized within curly brackets { } must be equal
or less than the length in elements that we declared for the array enclosed within square
brackets [ ]. If we have less number of items for the initialization, the rest will be filled with
zero.
 For example, in the example of the day array we have declared that it had 5 elements and in the
list of initial values within curly brackets { } we have set 5 different values, one for each

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element. If we ignore the last initial value (12071) in the above initialization, 0 will be taken
automatically for the last array element.
 Because this can be considered as useless repetition, C++ allows the possibility of leaving
empty the brackets [ ], where the number of items in the initialization bracket will be counted to
set the size of the array.

int day [] = { 1, 2, 7, 4, 12,9 };

 The compiler will count the number of initialization items which is 6 and set the size of the
array day to 6 (i.e.: day [6])
 You can use the initialization form only when defining the array. You cannot use it later, and
cannot assign one array to another once. I.e.

int arr [] = {16, 2, 77, 40, 12071};

int ar [4];
ar[]={1,2,3,4};//not allowed
arr=ar;//not allowed

 Note: when initializing an array, we can provide fewer values than the array elements. E.g. int a
[10] = {10, 2, 3}; in this case the compiler sets the remaining elements to zero.

Accessing and processing array elements

 In any point of the program in which the array is visible we can access individually anyone of
its elements for reading or modifying it as if it was a normal variable. To access individual
elements, index or subscript is used. The format is the following:

arrayname[index ];

 In c++ the first element has an index of 0 and the last element has an index, which is one less
the size of the array (i.e. arraysize-1). Thus, from the above declaration, day[0] is the first
element and day[4] is the last element.
 Following the previous examples where day had 5 elements and each element is of type int, the
name, which we can use to refer to each element, is the following one:

 For example, to store the value 75 in the third element of the array variable day a suitable
sentence would be:

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day[2] = 75; //as the third element is found at index 2

 And, for example, to pass the value of the third element of the array variable day to the
variable a , we could write:

a = day[2];

 Therefore, for all the effects, the expression day[2] is like any variable of type int with the
same properties. Thus an array declaration enables us to create a lot of variables of the same
type with a single declaration and we can use an index to identify individual elements.
 Notice that the third element of day is specified day[2] , since first is day[0] , second day[1] ,
and therefore, third is day[2] . By this same reason, its last element is day [4]. Since if we
wrote day [5], we would be acceding to the sixth element of day and therefore exceeding the
size of the array. This might give you either error or unexpected value depending on the
compiler.
 In C++ it is perfectly valid to exceed the valid range of indices for an Array, which can cause
certain detectable problems, since they do not cause compilation errors but they can cause
unexpected results or serious errors during execution. The reason why this is allowed will be
seen ahead when we begin to use pointers.
 At this point it is important to be able to clearly distinguish between the two uses the square
brackets [ ] have for arrays.
o One is to set the size of arrays during declaration
o The other is to specify indices for a specific array element when accessing the elements
of the array
 We must take care of not confusing these two possible uses of brackets [ ] with arrays:
Eg: int day[5]; // declaration of a new Array (begins with a type name)
day[2] = 75; // access to an element of the Array.

Other valid operations with arrays in accessing and assigning:

int a=1;
day [0] = a;
day[a] = 4;
b = day [a+2];
day [day[a]] = day [2] + 5;
day [day[a]] = day[1] + 5;
Eg: Arrays example, display the sum of the numbers in the array

#include <iostream.h>
int day [ ] = {16, 2, 77, 40, 12071};
int n, result=0;
void main ()
{
for ( n=0 ; n<5 ; n++ )

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{
result += day[n];
}
cout << result;
getch();

Strings of Characters:

What are Strings?

 In all programs and concepts we have seen so far, we have used only numerical variables, used to
express numbers exclusively. But in addition to numerical variables there also exist strings of
characters that allow us to represent successive characters, like words, sentences, names, texts, etc.
Until now we have only used them as constants, but we have never considered variables able to
contain them.
 In C++ there is no specific elementary variable type to store string of characters. In order to fulfill
this feature we can use arrays of type char, which are successions of char elements. Remember that
this data type (char) is the one used to store a single character, for that reason arrays of them are
generally used to make strings of single characters.
 For example, the following array (or string of characters) can store a string up to 20 characters long.
You may imagine it thus:

char name [20];

name

 This maximum size of 20 characters is not required to be always fully used. For example, name
could store at some moment in a program either the string of characters "Hello" or the string
"studying C++”. Therefore, since the array of characters can store shorter strings than its total
length, there has been reached a convention to end the valid content of a string with a null character,
whose constant can be written as '\0’.
 We could represent name (an array of 20 elements of type char) storing the strings of characters
"Hello" and "Studying C++" in the following way:

H e l l 0 \0

S t u d y i n g C + + \0

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 Notice how after the valid content it is included a null character ( '\0') in order to indicate the end of
string. The empty cells (elements) represent indeterminate values.

Initialization of Strings
 Because strings of characters are ordinary arrays they fulfill same rules as any array. For example,
if we want to initialize a string of characters with predetermined values we can do it in a similar
way to any other array:

char mystring[] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

 In this case we would have declared a string of characters (array) of 6 elements of type char
initialized with the characters that compose Hello plus a null character '\0' .
 Nevertheless, string of characters have an additional way to initialize its values: using constant
strings.
 In the expressions we have used in examples of previous chapters there have already appeared
several times constants that represented entire strings of characters. These are specified enclosed
between double quotes ( “ “ ), for example:

Eg: "the result is: "

is a constant string that we have probably used in some occasion.

 Unlike single quotes ( ' ) which allow to specify single character constants, double quotes ( " ) are
constants that specify a succession of characters. These strings enclosed between double quotes
have always a null character ( '\0' ) automatically appended at the end.
 Therefore we could initialize the string mystring with values by any of these two ways:

char mystring [] = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };

char mystring [] = "Hello";

 In both cases the Array or string of characters mystring is declared with a size of 6 characters
(elements of type char ): the 5 characters that compose Hello plus a final null character ( '\0' )
which specifies the end of the string and that, in the second case, when using double quotes ( " ) it
is automatically appended.
 Before going further, you should note that the assignation of multiple constants like double-quoted
constants ( " ) to arrays are only valid when initializing the array, that is, at the moment when
declared.
 The following expressions within a code are not valid for arrays
mystring="Hello";
mystring[] = "Hello";
 neither would be: mystring = { 'H', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o', '\0' };
 So remember: We can "assign" a multiple constant to an Array only at the moment of
initializing it. The reason will be more comprehensible when you know a bit more about pointers,
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since then it will be clarified that an array is simply a constant pointer pointing to an allocated block
of memory. And because of this constant feature, the array itself cannot be assigned any value, but
we can assign values to each of the elements of the array.
 At the moment of initializing an Array it is a special case, since it is not an assignation, although the
same equal sign ( = ) is used. Anyway, have always present the rule previously underlined.

Assigning Values to Strings

 Just like any other variables, array of character can store values using assignment operators. But the
following is not allowed.
mystring=”Hello”;
 This is allowed only during initialization. Therefore, since the lvalue of an assignation can only be
an element of an array and not the entire array, what would be valid is to assign a string of
characters to an array of char using a method like this:
mystring[0] = 'H';
mystring[1] = 'e';
mystring[2] = 'l';
mystring[3] = 'l';
mystring[4] = 'o';
mystring[5] = '\0';
 But as you may think, this does not seem to be a very practical method. Generally for assigning
values to an array, and more specifically to a string of characters, a series of functions like strcpy
are used. strcpy ( str ing c o py ) is defined in the ( string.h ) library and can be called the
following way:
strcpy ( string1 , string2 );
 This does copy the content of string2 into string1 . string2 can be either an array, a pointer, or a
constant string , so the following line would be a valid way to assign the constant string "Hello" to
mystring :
strcpy (mystring, "Hello");
For example:
#include <iostream.h>
#include <string.h>
int main ()
{
char szMyName [20];
strcpy (szMyName,"Abebe");
cout << szMyName;
return 0;
}
 Look how we have needed to include <string.h> header in order to be able to use function strcpy.
 Although we can always write a simple function like the following setstring with the same operating than
cstring's strcpy :

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// setting value to string

#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>

void namecopy(char dest[], char source[])

int c = 0;

while(source[c] != ‘\0’)

dest[c] = source[c];

c++;

dest[c] = ‘\0’;

cout<< “\n your name after copying : ”<<dest;

void main()
{

clrscr();

char name[10],dest[10];

cout<< “\n enter your name : ”;

cin>>name;

namecopy(dest,name);

getch();

 Another frequently used method to assign values to an array is by using directly the input stream (
cin ). In this case the value of the string is assigned by the user during program execution.
 When cin is used with strings of characters it is usually used with its getline method, that can be
called following this prototype:
 cin.getline ( char buffer [], int length , char delimiter = ' \n');
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 where buffer is the address where to store the input (like an array, for example), length is the
maximum length of the buffer (the size of the array) and delimiter is the character used to
determine the end of the user input, which by default - if we do not include that parameter - will be
the newline character ( '\n' ).
 The following example repeats whatever you type on your keyboard. It is quite simple but serves as
example on how you can use cin.getline with strings:
// cin with strings

#include <iostream.h>
#include<conio.h>
int main ()
{
char mybuffer [100];
cout << "What's your name? ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
cout << "Hello " << mybuffer << ".\n";
cout << "Which is your favourite team? ";
cin.getline (mybuffer,100);
cout << "I like " << mybuffer << " too.\n";
getch();

return 0;
}
 Notice how in both calls to cin.getline we used the same string identifier ( mybuffer ). What the
program does in the second call is simply step on the previous content of buffer by the new one
that is introduced.
 If you remember the section about communication through console, you will remember that we
used the extraction operator ( >> ) to receive data directly from the standard input. This method can
also be used instead of cin.getline with strings of characters. For example, in our program, when we
requested an input from the user we could have written:

cin >> mybuffer;

 this would work, but this method has the following limitations that cin.getline has not:

 It can only receive single words (no complete sentences) since this method uses as delimiter any
occurrence of a blank character, including spaces, tabulators, newlines and carriage returns.
 It is not allowed to specify a size for the buffer. What makes your program unstable in case that the user
input is longer than the array that will host it.

 For these reasons it is recommendable that whenever you require strings of characters coming from
cin you use cin.getline instead of cin >> .

Converting strings to other types

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 Due to that a string may contain representations of other data types like numbers it might be useful
to translate that content to a variable of a numeric type. For example, a string may contain "1977" ,
but this is a sequence of 5 chars not so easily convertible to a single integer data type. The cstdlib (
stdlib.h ) library provides three useful functions for this purpose:

 atoi: converts string to int type.

 atol: converts string to long type.
 atof: converts string to float type.

 All of these functions admit one parameter and return a value of the requested type ( int , long or
float ). These functions combined with getline method of cin are a more reliable way to get the user
input when requesting a number than the classic cin>> method:
// cin and ato* functions

#include <iostream.h>

#include <stdlib.h>

#include<conio.h>

int main()

{ clrscr();

char mybuffer[100];

float price;

int quantity;

cout << "Enter price: ";

cin.getline (mybuffer,100);

price = atof (mybuffer);

cout << "Enter quantity: ";

cin.getline (mybuffer,100);

quantity = atoi (mybuffer);

cout<<"\nafter conversion :\n";

cout<<"\nprice is : "<<price;

cout<<"\nquantity is : "<<quantity;

cout << "\nTotal price: " << price*quantity;

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getch();

return 0;

Functions to manipulate strings

 The cstring library ( string.h ) defines many functions to perform some manipulation operations with C-like
strings (like already explained strcpy). Here you have a brief with the most usual:
a) String length
 Returns the length of a string, not including the null character (\0).
strlen (const char* string );
b) String Concatenation:
 Appends src string at the end of dest string. Returns dest.
 The string concatenation can have two forms, where the first one is to append the whole
content of the source to the destination the other will append only part of the source to the
destination.
o Appending the whole content of the source
strcat (char* dest , const char* src );
o Appending part of the source
strncat (char* dest , const char* src, int size );
Where size is the number characters to be appended
c) String Copy:
 Overwrites the content of the dest string by the src string. Returns dest.
 The string copy can have two forms, where the first one is to copying the whole content of
the source to the destination and the other will copy only part of the source to the
destination.
o Copy the whole content of the source
strcpy (char* dest , const char* src );
o Appending part of the source
strncpy (char* dest , const char* src, int size );
Where size is the number characters to be copied
d) String Compare:
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 Compares the two string string1 and string2.

 The string compare can have two forms, where the first one is to compare the whole content
of the two strings and the other will compare only part of the two strings.
o Copy the whole content of the source
strcmp (const char* string1 , const char* string2 );
o Appending part of the source
strncmp (const char* string1 , const char* string2, int size );
Where size is the number characters to be compaired
 Both string compare functions returns three different values:
o Returns 0 is the strings are equal
o Returns negative value if the first is less than the second string
o Returns positive value if the first is greater than the second string

Multidimensional Arrays
 Multidimensional arrays can be described as arrays of arrays. For example, a bi-dimensional array
can be imagined as a bi-dimensional table of a uniform concrete data type.

 Matrix represents a bi-dimensional array of 3 per 5 values of type int . The way to declare this array
would be:

int matrix[3][5];

 For example, the way to reference the second element vertically and fourth horizontally in an
expression would be:

matrix[1][3]

(remember that array indices always begin by 0 )

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 Multidimensional arrays are not limited to two indices (two dimensions). They can contain so many
indices as needed, although it is rare to have to represent more than 3 dimensions. Just consider the
amount of memory that an array with many indices may need. For example:

char century [100][365][24][60][60];

 Assigns a char for each second contained in a century, that is more than 3 billion chars ! What
would consume about 3000 megabytes of RAM memory if we could declare it?
 Multidimensional arrays are nothing else than an abstraction, since we can simply obtain the same
results with a simple array by putting a factor between its indices:

int matrix [3][5]; is equivalent to

int matrix [15]; (3 * 5 = 15)

 With the only difference that the compiler remembers for us the depth of each imaginary
dimension. Serve as example these two pieces of code, with exactly the same result, one using bi-
dimensional arrays and the other using only simple arrays:
// multidimensional array

#include <iostream.h>
#define WIDTH 5
#define HEIGHT 3
int matrix [HEIGHT][WIDTH];
int n,m;

int main ()
{
for (n=0;n<HEIGHT;n++)
for (m=0;m<WIDTH;m++)
{
matrix [n][m]=(n+1)*(m+1);
}
return 0;
}

 None of the programs above produce any output on the screen, but both assign values to the
memory block called matrix in the following way:

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 We have used defined constants ( #define ) to simplify possible future modifications of the
program, for example, in case that we decided to enlarge the array to a height of 4 instead of 3 it
would be enough by changing the line:
#define HEIGHT 3
by the following code
#define HEIGHT 4

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Worksheet No 4:

1. Define strlen function (i.e write the function body of strlen)

2. Define the strcmp function and the strncmp function
3. Define strcpy function and the strncpy function
4. Define strcat function and the strncat function
5. Write a program to store the ages of six of your friends in a single array. Store each of the six ages using the assignment
operator. print the ages on the screen
6. Write a C++ program that accepts 10 integers from the user and finally displays the smallest value and the largest value.
7. Write a program that accepts ten different integers from the user and display these numbers after sorting them in increasing
order.
8. Write a program to store six of your friend’s ages in a single array. Assign the ages in a random order. print the ages, from
low to high, on-screen
9. Modify the program on Q8 to print the ages in descending order.
10. Write a C++ program that calculates the letter grades of 20 students. The program should accept the mid result and the final
result from the students. Use the appropriate validity control mechanism to prevent wrong inputs.
11. Write a C++ program that has two functions toBinary and toDecimal. The program should display a menu prompting the user
to enter his choice. If the user selects toBinary, then the function should accept a number in base ten and displays the
equivalent binary representation. The reverse should be done if the user selects toDecimal.
12. Develop a C++ program that accepts a word from the user and then checks whether the word is palindrome or not. (NB a
word is palindrome if it is readable from left to right as well as right to left).
13. Write a C++ program that accepts a word from the user and then displays the word after reversing it.
14. Develop a C++ program that accepts the name of a person and then counts how many vowels the person’s name have.
15. Modify the question in Q14 in such a way that it should replace vowel characters with * in the person name.
16. Write a program in C++ which read a three digit number and generate all the possible permutation of numbers using the
above digits. For example n = 123 then the permutations are – 123, 213, 312, 132, 231, 321
17. Write a program which read a set of lines until you enter #.
18. Write a program which read two matrixes and then print a matrix which is addition of these two matrixes.
19. Write a program which reads two matrix and multiply them if possible
20. Write a program which reads a 3 x 2 matrix and then calculates the sum of each row and store that in a one dimension array.

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