� Summary: Why We Study Computer

 Computers help in many tasks:

o Students → typing research papers (MS Word)

o Teachers → computing grades (MS Excel)

o Speakers/Managers → presentations (MS PowerPoint)

o Secretaries → typing memos

o Architects → designing buildings (AutoCAD)

o Pilots → flight simulations

o Banks → ATMs for cash withdrawals

o Airlines/Shipping → online booking systems

o Children → computer games

 Computers are everywhere, making life easier and more productive.

 Definition: A computer is an electronic device that processes data

into useful information. It is controlled by software

(instructions/programs).

� History of Computers (Important Milestones)

Early Calculation

 Abacus → first tool for calculation.

 Human needs grew → invention of computers.

Computer Revolution (1930s–1960s)

 1939 → Konrad Zuse built first general-purpose computer.

  John Atanasoff created first electronic computer (ABC).

 1944 → Howard Aiken built Mark I (with IBM).

 1946 → ENIAC invented (for WWII gun trajectory). Later

developed into UNIVAC 1 (first commercial computer).

 1948 → Transistor invented → start of 2nd generation computers.

 1960s → Integrated Circuit (IC) created → 3rd generation

computers.

 1965 → First home computer: H316 “Kitchen Computer.”

 1969 → Microprocessor invented → 4th generation computers.

1970s Innovations

 Mid-1970s → Apple, Tandy, Commodore released low-cost,

powerful computers.

 1971 → Intel released first commercial microprocessor (by Ted

Hoff). Steve Wozniak & Bill Fernandez built “Cream Soda

Computer.”

 1972 → 5.25” floppy disk introduced (for data transfer).

 1973 → IBM introduced hard disk (70 MB capacity).

 1974 → Intel & Motorola introduced 8-bit microprocessor.

 1975 → First personal computer (Altair) released.

 1976 → Apple I introduced by Steve Jobs & Steve Wozniak →

start of Apple Inc.

 1978 → Epson launched first dot-matrix printer (MX-80).

✅ Key takeaway:

We study computers because they are used in education, work, business,

science, and daily life. From the abacus to today’s powerful PCs,

computers have gone through four generations:

1. Vacuum tubes → 2. Transistors → 3. ICs → 4. Microprocessors.

� Summary: A Short History of Calculating Machines

 1642 – Blaise Pascal invented the Pascaline (adding machine).

Basis for later mechanical calculators.

 1830 – Charles Babbage invented the Difference Engine and later

conceived the Analytical Engine, which had the five features of

modern computers:

o Input, Storage, Processor, Control Unit, Output.

→ Known as the Father of Computer.

 Ada Lovelace (Augusta Ada Byron) → worked with Babbage,

developed instructions for the Analytical Engine. Called the first

computer programmer.

 1890 – Herman Hollerith invented the punched-card tabulating

machine (used in the U.S. Census).

o Founded Tabulating Machine Company, which later became

IBM (1924), still one of the biggest computer companies

today.

� The Computer Age Generations

1. First Generation (1951–1958) – Vacuum Tubes

 o Used vacuum tubes for components.

o UNIVAC I was the first commercially viable computer (based

on ENIAC).

2. Second Generation (1959–1964) – Transistors

o Used transistors instead of vacuum tubes.

o Smaller, faster, more reliable, and consumed less energy.

3. Third Generation (1965–1970) – Integrated Circuits (ICs)

o ICs (silicon chips) replaced transistors.

o Entire circuit boards could fit into one small chip.

4. Fourth Generation (1971–present) – Microprocessors

o Microprocessor = “brain of the computer,” does most

operations.

o Not just in computers, but also in calculators, watches, TVs,

cars, and appliances.

✅ Key Takeaway:

Before modern computers, early inventors like Pascal, Babbage, Ada

Lovelace, and Hollerith paved the way with machines and ideas. Later,

computers evolved through four generations:

1. Vacuum Tubes → 2. Transistors → 3. Integrated Circuits → 4.

Microprocessors.

� Summary: Fifth Generation and Modern Computers

Fifth Generation (Onward) – Information Superhighway

  Coined by Japan (mid-1990s plan).

 Focus: Artificial Intelligence (AI), natural language, expert systems.

 Also focused on connectivity → linking computers together → led to

the Internet (information superhighway).

� Types of Computers Today

1. Mainframes & Minicomputers

 Mainframes → large, expensive, room-sized computers used by big

companies (e.g., banks).

 Minicomputers → smaller than mainframes, but more powerful

than PCs.

o Today, high-end servers (PCs) can surpass old minicomputers.

2. Personal Computers & Workstations

 PC (microcomputer/desktop) → for personal use.

 Workstation → a PC connected to a server in a network.

3. Laptops, Notebooks & Pocket PCs

 Early portables (1980s) → heavy suitcase-like.

 Now → laptops/notebooks (light, flat-screen, battery-powered).

 Palmtops / Pocket PCs → very small, fit in pockets (e.g., Palm

Pilot).

4. Supercomputers

 Extremely powerful, used for scientific research (aerodynamics,

nuclear studies, weather, seismic data, etc.).

  Example: Cray 1.

 Only a few hundred exist worldwide.

5. Embedded & Special-Purpose Computers

 Built into devices for specific tasks (temperature control, hospital

monitoring, appliances, cars, game consoles, phones).

 Usually chips with firmware (hardware + software combined).

� Computers for People vs. Companies

 For People (Personal use):

o Desktop PC

o Laptop / Notebook

o Palmtop / PDA

o Smartphone (Internet, organizer, email, etc.)

 For Companies (Business use):

o Mainframes

o Minicomputers (midrange)

o Supercomputers

o Network Servers (central computer, employees access via

workstations)

� Key Idea: “All Computers Are the Same”

  Despite differences (size, category, purpose), all computers share

the same basic components: CPU, memory, motherboard, etc.

 All require software (instructions) to run.

✅ Final Takeaway:

 5th Generation → AI + Internet connectivity.

 Types today: Mainframes, Minicomputers, PCs, Laptops,

Supercomputers, Embedded Computers.

 For people → desktops, laptops, handhelds, smartphones.

 For companies → servers, mainframes, supercomputers.

 No matter the type, all computers are built from the same core

parts and need software.

� The Computer Number Systems (Series I)

� Why Do We Need to Learn Number Systems?

Many students often ask: “Why do we study things like algebra,

trigonometry, or number systems? Will they really help us when we work

in a company?”

The truth is, not everything may be directly useful. But when it comes to

number systems, the answer is YES — this knowledge is very practical

and applied in the real world.

� Reason: Computers and networking devices (like routers and switches)

operate using binary digits (bits) — that is, the base-2 number system.

 A bit can be either:

 o 1 → Presence of current / ON / True / Yes

o 0 → Absence of current / OFF / False / No

These binary signals are the foundation of computer circuits, switching

systems, and programming logic.

� In Networking

 Binary data is transmitted as:

o Electrical voltage (copper cables)

o Light pulses (fiber optic cables)

o Electromagnetic waves (wireless communication)

 Humans prefer decimal numbers (base-10). That’s why IP addresses

in networking (IPv4) are written in dotted-decimal notation for

readability. Example: 192.168.1.1

 Internally, though, computers convert these decimal or hexadecimal

addresses back into binary to communicate.

✅ Mastering binary, decimal, and hexadecimal conversions is essential

for understanding IP addresses, subnets, routing, and computer

hardware.

� Binary Number System (Base-2)

 Uses only two digits: 0 and 1

 1 → True / Yes / On / Current present

 0 → False / No / Off / No current

� Binary is the language of computers.

� Decimal Number System (Base-10)

This is the system we use every day. Each digit represents a power of 10.

Example:

1. 7642

2. = 7 × 10³ + 6 × 10² + 4 × 10¹ + 2 × 10⁰

3. = 7000 + 600 + 40 + 2

4. = 7642

5. 28.36

6. = 2 × 10¹ + 8 × 10⁰ + 3 × 10⁻¹ + 6 × 10⁻²

7. = 20 + 8 + 0.30 + 0.06

8. = 28.36

� Conversions

� A.) Binary → Decimal Conversion

Use expanded notation with base 2.

1. 10₂

= 1×2¹ + 0×2⁰

=2 +0

= 2₁ ₀

2. 110₂

= 1×2² + 1×2¹ + 0×2⁰

 =4 +2 +0

= 6₁ ₀

3. 1111₂

= 1×2³ + 1×2² + 1×2¹ + 1×2⁰

=8 +4 +2 +1

= 15₁ ₀

� B.) Decimal → Binary Conversion

Divide repeatedly by 2, then read the remainders upward.

Example 1: 14₁ ₀

14 ÷ 2 = 7 remainder 0

7 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 1

3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1

1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1

Binary = 1110₂

Example 2: 9₁ ₀

9 ÷ 2 = 4 remainder 1

4 ÷ 2 = 2 remainder 0

2 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 0

1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1

Binary = 1001₂

Example 3: 120₁ ₀
120 ÷ 2 = 60 remainder 0

60 ÷ 2 = 30 remainder 0

30 ÷ 2 = 15 remainder 0

15 ÷ 2 = 7 remainder 1

7÷ 2 = 3 remainder 1

3÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1

1÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1

Binary = 1111000₂

� Practice Test

A.) Binary → Decimal

1. 11₂ = ___?₁ ₀

2. 101₂ = ___?₁ ₀

3. 111₂ = ___?₁ ₀

4. 1000₂ = ___?₁ ₀

5. 1011₂ = ___?₁ ₀

6. 1101₂ = ___?₁ ₀

B.) Decimal → Binary

1. 8₁ ₀ = ___?₂

2. 26₁ ₀ = ___?₂

3. 48₁ ₀ = ___?₂
 4. 21₁ ₀ = ___?₂

5. 110₁ ₀ = ___?₂

6. 236₁ ₀ = ___?₂

CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2 – The Basics of Computer Hardware (Summary)

1. Importance of Computers

 Computers make life easier: airline reservations, weather forecasts,

ATM transactions, etc.

 They perform four basic tasks: input, processing, output, and

storage.

 Behind computers’ power is human intelligence, expressed through

programs (software).

2. Main Components of a Computer

 Input Devices: keyboard, mouse, joystick.

 Output Devices: monitor, printer.

 Processor: the CPU (microprocessor), performs computations and

decisions; called the "brain" of the computer.

 Storage Devices: floppy disks, hard drives, CDs, DVDs, USB drives,

backup tapes.

 Memory:

o RAM (Random Access Memory): temporary storage.

o ROM (Read-Only Memory): permanent storage.

3. Hardware Revolution (Timeline Highlights)

 1981: Osborne I (first portable PC), IBM PC (with Intel 8088),

Xerox Star (first use of mouse).

 1982: Sun Microsystems founded, Intel 80286 (16-bit).

 1983: First IBM-PC compatible (Compaq).

 1985: Intel 80386 (32-bit), HP LaserJet printer.

 1986: IBM laptop, CD-ROM introduced.

 1987: EISA bus, VGA graphics (IBM), HP Deskjet printer.

 1988: Steve Jobs’ NeXT computer (OOP & CD-ROM).

 1989: Apple PowerBook laptop, PowerPC project (Apple, IBM,

Motorola).

1990s:

 1992: IBM ThinkPad.

 1993: IBM RISC workstation (PowerPC 601).

 1994: Apple PowerPC computer.

 1995: Intel Pentium, Apple clones.

 1996: PalmPilot (PDA), Sun Ultra 64-bit.

 1997: Pentium II & MMX, DVD introduced.

 1998: Intel Celeron & Xeon, Apple iMac (G3, USB, no floppy).

 1999: Intel Pentium III, AMD Athlon, Apple iMac G4.

2000s:

 2000: First 1 GHz processors (Intel & AMD).

  2001: Apple iPod launched.

 2003: Supercomputer (6.5B operations/sec), 64-bit CPUs (Intel,

AMD, Apple G5).

 2005: Bluetooth devices, Intel Core Duo.

 2006: Intel Core 2 Duo (40% faster).

 2007: Intel Quad Core desktop CPUs.

✅ This summary captures the main functions of computers, core

hardware components, and the hardware evolution timeline (1980s–

2000s).

The Computer Sub-System and Peripherals – Summary

 CPU (Central Processing Unit / Microprocessor):

o Known as the “brain” of the computer.

o Executes program instructions, performs arithmetic and

logical operations, and communicates with other components.

o Speed is measured in MHz/GHz (millions/billions of cycles per

second).

o Performance depends on architecture (CISC, RISC, or parallel

processing), bit-rate capacity (8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, 64-bit),

and number of transistors.

o Intel processors include Pentium, Celeron, Centrino, Itanium,

and Xeon.

o AMD processors include Athlon, Duron, Opteron, and Turion.

 o Key technologies:

 Dual-Core: Energy-efficient, supports multitasking and

multimedia.

 Core 2 Duo: 40% faster, features smart cache, memory

access, and power efficiency.

 Quad Core: Combines two Core 2 Duos (4 cores),

enabling faster multitasking and graphics processing.

 AMD Turion 64 x2: AMD’s dual-core for laptops,

designed for efficiency, security, and digital media.

 Cache Memory: Extremely fast memory located inside the CPU or

motherboard, organized in levels (L1, L2, L3).

 RAM (Random Access Memory):

o Volatile memory (data erased when power is off).

o Stores programs and data temporarily using unique memory

addresses.

o Larger RAM = faster and better performance.

 ROM (Read-Only Memory):

o Non-volatile (data is permanent).

o Contains essential firmware to boot and check hardware

systems.

 CMOS:

o Stores hardware configurations, date, and time.

o Powered by a battery to retain information when PC is off.

  Flash Memory:

o Portable, non-volatile memory used in USB drives, cameras,

MP3/MP4 players.

o MP3 compresses audio; MP4 (MPEG-4 AVC) compresses

video.

 Input Devices:

o Keyboard – main text input device.

o Mouse/Trackball – pointing devices for screen navigation.

o Touch screen – responds to finger taps (used in malls,

airports, libraries).

o Touch tablet – used by artists and designers.

o Barcode readers – scan product codes, often linked to

POS/ECR machines.

o Scanner – digitizes photos, drawings, and documents.

o Digital Camera – captures real images and stores them

digitally.

o Webcam – used for video calls and conferencing.

o Microphone/Headset – records voice, useful for multimedia,

calls, and online meetings.

Input Devices

 Stylus/Pen: Used in PDAs, tablets, and handheld computers for

writing or selecting options. Best for short notes, forms, or

checklists.
  Audio Digitizers: Convert sound into digital data for storage and

editing.

 Sensing Devices: Measure temperature, pressure, humidity (used in

science, robotics, medicine, weather).

 Joysticks & Game Pads: Used for computer and network/online

gaming.

Output Devices

 Monitors:

o CRT (old, bulky, TV-style)

o LCD (flat, clearer, sharper, higher resolution).

o Resolution = clarity; higher resolution = sharper but smaller

images (can cause eyestrain).

o Quality also depends on the video card (nVidia, ATI, Intel

GMA).

 Data Projector (LCD Projector): Projects presentations or videos

onto walls/screens.

 Printers:

o Impact (dot-matrix): Uses tiny hammers.

o Non-impact (inkjet, laser): Inkjet sprays ink; laser uses

charged drum + toner.

 Plotters: For large-scale printing (e.g., blueprints).

 Synthesizers: Generate sounds electronically.

  Headphones/Headsets: Play music or sound privately.

Storage Devices

 Floppy Disk: Old, small storage, now obsolete.

 Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Main storage inside computer, stores large

data.

 CD/DVD-ROM: Optical disks, read with laser. Good for media

storage.

 USB Flash Drive (Thumb Drive): Small, portable, rewritable, very

common today.

 Tape Drive: Used for backups, but slower.

Computer Ports

 Keyboard/Mouse ports – for input devices.

 Monitor port – connects display.

 Network port (RJ-45) – for LAN/Internet.

 Modem port (RJ-11) – for phone-line Internet.

 Parallel port – for older printers.

 Serial port – for external modems.

 USB port – modern, used for many devices (printers, flash drives,

cameras, iPods).

 Audio ports – color-coded (green = speaker, pink = mic, yellow =

stereo).
Computer Bus

 A bus = group of parallel wires = communication path between

computer components.

 Types:

o System Bus → connects CPU to devices on the motherboard.

 Data Bus → carries data (e.g., 16-bit bus = 2 bytes,

32-bit bus = 4 bytes).

 Address Bus → carries memory addresses (between

RAM & CPU).

o Expansion Bus → connects external devices (mouse, printer,

modem, etc.) to CPU.

Bus Standards

 ISA – older, connects slower devices.

 USB – hot-swappable, universal connection.

 Local Bus – for faster devices.

 AGP – gives video cards direct access to RAM (better 3D graphics).

 PC Card Bus – for laptops (network cards, WiFi, biometrics, etc.).

 FireWire (IEEE 1394) – for high-speed video/digital cameras.

Expansion Slots

 Allow adding new hardware (e.g., video card, modem, sound card).

 Extend the bus system.

UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

 Provides backup power during brownouts, power failures, or

fluctuations.

 Surge Suppressor → protects against voltage spikes.

 Line Conditioner → protects against line noise from nearby

electrical equipment.

Number Systems (Series II) – Octal

 Octal (Base 8): Digits 0–7.

 Useful in computing because 3 binary bits = 1 octal digit.

Conversions

1. Decimal → Octal

 Divide by 8, record remainders, read upward.

 Example:

o 10 → 12₈

o 136 → 210₈

o 1490 → 2722₈

2. Octal → Decimal

 Multiply each digit × powers of 8.

 Example:

o 14₈ = (1×8¹) + (4×8⁰) = 12₁ ₀

o 230₈ = (2×64) + (3×8) + 0 = 152₁ ₀

3. Octal → Binary

 Each octal digit = 3 binary bits.

 Example:

o 36₈ → 011 110 → 11110₂

o 142₈ → 001 100 010 → 1100010₂

4. Binary → Octal

 Group binary digits into 3 bits, convert each group.

 Example:

o 111000101₂ → 111 (7), 000 (0), 101 (5) = 705₈

o 110.111₂ → 6.7₈

Practice Tests (Octal Section)

A. Decimal → Octal

1. 11₁ ₀ = ?₈

2. 134₁ ₀ = ?₈

3. 28₁ ₀ = ?₈

4. 765₁ ₀ = ?₈

5. 1689₁ ₀ = ?₈

6. 2387₁ ₀ = ?₈

B. Octal → Decimal

1. 70₈ = ?₁ ₀
 2. 42₈ = ?₁ ₀

3. 165₈ = ?₁ ₀

4. 436₈ = ?₁ ₀

5. 3,216₈ = ?₁ ₀

6. 2,543₈ = ?₁ ₀

C. Octal → Binary

1. 47₈ = ?₂

2. 65₈ = ?₂

3. 132₈ = ?₂

4. 547₈ = ?₂

5. 23.61₈ = ?₂

6. 44.12₈ = ?₂

D. Binary → Octal

1. 111₂ = ?₈

2. 101₂ = ?₈

3. 111.101₂ = ?₈

4. 101101₂ = ?₈

5. 111100111₂ = ?₈

6. 101000111₂ = ?₈