Classes Schedule

Course Code: 23IR102 and 23IM102

Physics
Day Time
Wednesday 1.40 – 2.30
Thursday 2.30 – 3.20
Friday 10.30 – 11.20
Friday Lab 1.40 – 5.10
Why Physics?
 23M102 Physics
STATICS OF PARTICLES:
•Introduction to Newtonian mechanics – vector mechanics
•Forces on a particle, parallelogram law, resolution of a force, rectangular components of a force
•Resultant of several concurrent forces
•Equilibrium of a particle, free-body diagrams, forces in space
•Equilibrium of a particle in space
KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES:
•Introduction to dynamics
•Rectilinear motion of particles
•Analytical and graphical solutions to problems
•Motion of several particles
•Curvilinear motion of particles: projectile motion, rotary motion, and rolling motion
KINETICS OF PARTICLES – NEWTON’S SECOND LAW AND FRICTION:
•Rectilinear and rotary motion
•Newton’s second law
•D’Alembert’s principle
•Dependent motion of several particles
•Friction: concepts of friction, problems involving dry friction
•Wedges, square-threaded screws, journal bearings
•Axle friction, thrust bearings, disk friction, wheel friction, rolling resistance, belt friction

KINETICS OF PARTICLES – ENERGY METHODS:

•Work-energy and power
•Work of a force
•Conservative and non-conservative forces
•Kinetic energy
•Principle of work and energy
•Potential energy
•Conservation of energy
•Power and efficiency
•Solving problems using the concepts of friction wherever applicable

KINETICS OF PARTICLES – MOMENTUM METHODS:

•Concept of conservation of momentum
•Coefficient of restitution
•Impulse-momentum principle
•Impact – direct central impact, oblique central impact
•Problems involving impulse and momentum
Text/Reference Books
➢ I.H.Shames, EngineeringMechanics: Statics and dynamics, 4th Ed, PHI,
2002.
➢ F. P. Beerand E. R.Johnston,VectorMechanics for Engineers,Vol I- Statics, Vol
II – Dynamics, 9th Ed, Tata McGraw Hill, 2011.
➢ A. Nelson, Engineering Mechanics: Statics And Dynamics, Tata McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited, 2009
➢ J.L.MeriamandL. G.Kraige, EngineeringMechanics, Vol I– Statics, Vol II–
Dynamics, 6th Ed, John Wiley,2008. • R.C.Hibbler,Engineering Mechanics:
Principles of Statics and Dynamics, Pearson Press, 2006.
➢ Andy Ruina and Rudra Pratap, Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford
University Press, 2011
 Statics of Particles
Introduction to Newtonian Mechanics & Vector Mechanics
➢ Mechanics
Mechanics is one of the oldest branches of the physical sciences. It deals with the behavior of
bodies, either at rest or in motion under the influence of forces.

•Statics: The analysis of bodies at rest, where all the forces are balanced.
•Dynamics: The study of bodies in motion, which includes:
•Kinematics: Describing motion without considering the forces that cause it.
•Kinetics: Understanding motion with respect to the forces involved.
➢ Newton’s Laws of Motion (Focus on Statics)
✓ Before 1686 – Sir Isaac Newton
Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):
A body remains at rest or in uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by a net
external force.

•In statics, this implies:

•If the net force on a body is zero, the body is in equilibrium.
•Mathematically:
∑F = 0
Newton's Second Law (Law of Acceleration)
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the net external force
acting on it, and this change takes place in the direction of the applied force

✓ The net force acting on a body is directly proportional to the rate of change of its
momentum.
𝒅𝝊
F∝𝒎
𝒅𝒕 (for a constant mass system)
F ∝ ma

F=kma

k=1 (SI unit for force is N (newton))

F = ma
✓ The greater the force, the greater the acceleration.
✓ If no net force acts (F = 0), the object maintains its state of rest or constant velocity (i.e.,
Newton’s First Law).
Mass & Weight
Mass:
The mass of a body is defined as the quantity of matter it contains and is a measure of its
inertia.
✓ Greater mass greater inertia – need more force to move
✓ It is an inherent property of a body and does not change with location.
✓ It has magnitude but no direction.
✓ SI unit - Kilogram (kg).
Weight:
Weight is the gravitational force acting on a mass due to Earth’s gravity.
✓ It has both magnitude and direction (always acts toward the center of the Earth).
✓ A body’s weight changes based on the local value of g (on the Moon, Mars, or a high
mountain).
✓ Formula W = mg (N)
W – Weight (N)
m – Mass (kg)
g – (acceleration due to gravity (≈ 9.8 m/s2 on Earth)
Gravitational Unit of Force:
A gravitational unit of force is the force with which the Earth attracts a body of unit mass toward
its center.
✓ Kilogram-force (kgf): It is the force exerted by gravity on a mass of 1 kilogram.
➢ 1 kgf = 9.81 N
✓ Gram-force (gf):
➢ 1 gf=0.00981 N
Newton's Third Law (Action–Reaction)
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
✓ Action and reaction forces act on different bodies, never cancel out.
✓ Forces always occur in pairs.

What would happen if this boy pushed the same box in space?
 Universal Law of Gravitation
Every object in the universe attracts every other object with
a force that is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them
m⋅𝑀
F = G⋅ 2
𝑟

✓ F - Gravitational force between two masses

✓ G - Universal gravitational constant (6.674×10−11 Nm2/kg2)
✓ M, m​ - Masses of the two objects
✓ r - Distance between the centers of the two objects

✓ Gravity is a universal force — acts between any two objects with mass.
✓ The force increases with greater masses.
✓ The force decreases rapidly with increasing distance (inverse square law).
✓ Gravity is always an attractive force, never repulsive.
 Scalar and Vector Quantities
Scalar Quantities:
A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that has only magnitude (size or numerical value), but no
direction. (example: Temperature, Mass, Time, Volume and Speed of light)

Vector Quantities:
A vector quantity is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. You cannot
describe a vector fully without specifying where it's pointing. (example: Displacement, Velocity,
Acceleration, Force, Momentum, Weight, Electric Field)
Force
A force is a push or pull exerted on a body that causes, or attempts to cause, a change in its
state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line.

F = ma ✓ SI unit for force – N (Newton)

Effects of Force
A force may produce the following effects on a body:
1.It can change the motion of a body.
i.e., if a body is at rest, force may set it into motion. If already in motion, the force may
accelerate or decelerate it.
2.It can retard or stop the motion of a body, bringing it to rest or to equilibrium.
3.It can produce internal stresses within a body.
4.It can change the direction of motion of a moving object.
5.It can change the shape and size of an object.
Principle of Physical Independence of Forces (Principle of Superposition of Forces)
If multiple forces act simultaneously on a body, the total effect (resultant force) is the same as
the sum of the effects of each individual force acting alone.
✓ If two people push a box, one with 10 N and the other with 15 N in the same direction,
the total (resultant) force is:
𝐹resultant=10 N+15 N=25 N

System of Forces:
When two or more forces act simultaneously on a body, they form a system of forces.
This system is classified based on:
➢ Whether the forces lie in the same plane (coplanar or non-coplanar)
➢ Whether they act through a common point (concurrent or non-concurrent)
➢ Whether they lie along the same line (collinear)
1. Coplanar Forces
2. Collinear Forces
3. Concurrent Forces
4. Coplanar Concurrent Forces
5. Coplanar Non-Concurrent Forces
6. Non-Coplanar Concurrent Forces
7. Non-Coplanar Non-Concurrent Forces
1. Coplanar Forces
•Forces that lie in the same plane.
•Example: Forces acting on a flat table surface.
2. Collinear Forces
•Forces that act along the same line (same line
of action).
•They can be coplanar and concurrent too.
•Example: Tug of war – forces along the rope.
3. Concurrent Forces
•Forces whose lines of action intersect at a
common point, regardless of their magnitude
or direction.
•May or may not be coplanar.
•Example: Strings pulling a ring in different
directions but meeting at a single point.
4. Coplanar Concurrent Forces
•Forces that lie in the same plane and meet at a
single point.
•Example: Tensions in strings holding an object
at rest.
5. Coplanar Non-Concurrent Forces
•Forces that lie in the same plane but do not
meet at a common point.
•Example: Forces on a beam or truss in 2D
space.
6. Non-Coplanar Concurrent Forces y
•Forces that act in different planes but
intersect at a common point.
•Example: A satellite pulled by Earth’s
gravity and thrust forces at angles from x
different engines.
z
7. Non-Coplanar Non-Concurrent Forces
y
•Forces that neither lie in the same plane
nor meet at a common point.
•Most complex system to analyze.
•Example: Forces acting on a 3D
mechanical structure like a drone or x
robotic arm.
z
 Vector
(magnitude and direction)
Graphical Representation
Arrow Line: The length of the arrow shows the magnitude (how big the vector is). The
arrowhead shows the direction.
Example: An arrow pointing right can represent a velocity vector of 5 m/s east.

Notation: 𝑨

Algebraic (Component) Form

In 2D:
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗Ƹ

In 3D:
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖Ƹ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗Ƹ + 𝐶𝑧 𝑘෠
 Important trigonometric formulas
A
Opposite AB
sin θ= sin θ=
Hypotenuse AC

Adjacent CB
cos θ= Hypotenuse cos θ= AC

90°
Opposite AB 𝜃
tan θ= Adjacent tan θ= CB
C B

sin θ = 1 / cosec θ cosec θ = 1 / sin θ sin(−θ) = −sin θ

cos θ = 1 / sec θ cos(−θ) = cos θ
sec θ = 1 / cos θ
tan(−θ) = −tan θ
tan θ = 1 / cot θ cot θ = 1 / tan θ

sin² θ + cos² θ = 1 sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

1 + tan² θ = sec² θ cos 2A = cos² A − sin² A
1 + cot² θ = cosec² θ cos 2A = 2 cos² A − 1
1 + cos 2θ = 2 cos² θ
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin² A
1 − cos 2θ = 2 sin² θ
tan 2A = 2 tan A / (1 − tan² A)
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan(A + B) = (tan A + tan B) / (1 − tan A tan B)
tan(A − B) = (tan A − tan B) / (1 + tan A tan B)

a / sin A = b / sin B = c / sin C

a² = b² + c² − 2bc cos A

If ax² + bx + c = 0, then solution: x = [−b ± √(b² − 4ac)] / 2a

x⁰ = 1 (Any number to the power 0 is equal to 1)

xᵐ × xⁿ = xᵐ⁺ⁿ (Multiply powers: add exponents)

xᵐ / xⁿ = xᵐ⁻ⁿ (Divide powers: subtract exponents)

sin θ / (1 + cosθ) = tan(θ/2)

 Parallelogram Law of Forces

B C

O
A D

If two concurrent forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented in magnitude and
direction by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal of the parallelogram from
the same point represents the resultant of the two forces in both magnitude and direction.
✓ This method is suitable for finding the resultant of only two concurrent forces

R = (F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂ cos θ)

F₂ sin θ
tan(α) =
F₁ + F₂ cos θ
 B C

F2 sin θ
θ
O F cos θ D
A 2

Let F₁ and F₂ be two forces acting at a point with an angle θ between them.

ΔODC: −
OC² = OD² + DC² = (OA + AD)² + (DC)²
So, R² = (F₁ + F₂ cos θ)² + (F₂ sin θ)²
R² = F₁² + 2F₁F₂ cos θ + F₂² cos² θ + F₂² sin² θ
R² = F₁² + 2F₁F₂ cos θ + F₂² (cos² θ + sin² θ)
R² = F₁² + 2F₁F₂ cos θ + F₂² (Using identity sin² θ + cos² θ = 1: )

Hence,R = (F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂ cos θ)

To find the direction (angle α) of the resultant force R, use triangle ΔODC: −
tanα = DC / (OA + AD) = F₂ sinθ / (F₁ + F₂ cos θ)

F₂ sin θ
tan (α) =
F₁ + F₂ cos θ

Case I: When θ = 0°
Case II: When θ = 180°
Case III: When θ = 90°
Case IV: When F₁ = F₂
 Case I: When θ = 0° (Same direction)
cos 0° = 1

R = (F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂ cos 0) = (F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂)

R= F₁ + F₂

F₂ sin θ F₂ x 0
tan(α) = F₁ + F₂ cos θ = F₁ + F₂ x 𝟏 = 0; tanα = 0 ⇒ α = 0

α=0

Case II: When θ = 180° (Opposite direction)

cos 180° = −1

R = (F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂ cos180) = (F₁² + F₂² − 2F₁F₂)

R = F₁ − F₂

F₂ sin θ F₂ x 0
tan(α) = F₁ + F₂ cos θ = = 0; tanα = 0 ⇒ α = 0
F₁ + F₂ x (−𝟏)
α=0
 Case III: When θ = 90° (Forces at right angles)
cos 90° = 0

R = (F₁² + F₂² + 0) = (F₁² + F₂²)

𝑹= (F₁² + F₂²)
F₂ sin θ F₂ x 1
tan(α) = F₁ + F₂ cos θ = F₁ + F₂ x 0 = 0; tanα = F₂ / F₁

tanα = F₂ / F₁
Case IV: When F₁ = F₂

R = (F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂ cos θ) = (2F₁² + 2F₁² cos θ) = (2F₁² (1 + cos θ)) =F₁ (2 (1 + cos θ))
Using (1 + cos θ = 2cos² (θ/2))

R =F₁ (4 cos² (θ/2)) = 2F₁ cos (θ/2)

R = 2F₁ cos (θ/2)

F₂ sin θ
tan(α) = F₁ + F₂ cos θ = (F sin θ) / (F + F cos θ) = sin θ / (1 + cosθ) = tan(θ/2)

α=θ/2
Q: Two forces of 100 N and 150 N are acting simultaneously at a point. What is the resultant
of these two forces, if the angle between them is 45°?
 Q: Two forces of 100 N and 150 N are acting simultaneously at a point. What is the resultant of
these two forces, if the angle between them is 45°?
Given:
F₁ = 100 N, F₂ = 150 N, θ = 45°
Using the formula: R = √(F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂ cosθ)
R = √(100² + 150² + 2 × 100 × 150 × cos45°)
R = √(10000 + 22500 + 30000 × 0.7071)
R = √(10000 + 22500 + 21213)
R = √(53713)
R ≈ 231.7 N

Direction of resultant: tanα = (F₂ sinθ) / (F₁ + F₂ cosθ)

tanα = (150 × sin45°) / (100 + 150 × cos45°)
tanα = (150 × 0.7071) / (100 + 150 × 0.7071)
tanα = 106.07 / (100 + 106.07) = 106.07 / 206.07 ≈ 0.515
α ≈ tan⁻¹(0.515) ≈ 27.2°
Resultant = 231.7 N at anαangle of 27.2° from 100 N force.
=27.2°
Q: Find the magnitude of two forces such that if they act at right angles, the resultant is √10 N.
But if they act at 60 degrees their resultant is √13 N.

Q: Two vectors of equal magnitude when added gave a resultant equal to either vector. What
is the angle between them?
Q: Find the magnitude of two forces such that if they act at right angles, the resultant is √10 N.
But if they act at 60 degrees their resultant is √13 N.

Case I: 𝛉 = 90°
𝐑 = P² + Q² + 2PQ cos 90° (cos 90 ° = 0)
𝐑 = 𝐏 𝟐 + 𝐐𝟐
𝟏𝟎 = 𝐏 𝟐 + 𝐐𝟐
10 = P2 + Q2 ……………………………………………………………………………… (1)

Case I: 𝛉 = 60°
𝐑 = P² + Q² + 2PQ cos 60° (cos 60 ° = ½)
𝐑 = P² + Q² + PQ
13 = P² + Q² + PQ
13 = P2 + Q2 + PQ
13 = 10 + PQ
3 = PQ ……………………………………………………………………………………… (2)

We know: P2+Q2=(P+Q)2−2PQ
10 =(P+Q)2−2(3)
10+6 = (P+Q)2
42 = (P+Q)2
P+Q = 4 .…………………………………………………………………………………… (3)
We know: (𝑃−𝑄)2=(𝑃+𝑄)2− 4𝑃𝑄
(𝑃−𝑄)2 =(4)2−4(3)
(𝑃−𝑄)2 =16−12
(𝑃−𝑄)2 = 4
P-Q = 2 .…………………………………………………………………………………… (4)
Solving (3 & 4)

P = 3N and Q = 1N
Q: Two vectors of equal magnitude when added gave a resultant equal to either vector. What
is the angle between them?
Given:
F₁ = F₂ = F; R=F
Using the formula: R = (F₁² + F₂² + 2F₁F₂ cosθ)

R = F² + F² + 2 F x F cosθ
R = 2F² + 2F²cosθ
R = F 2 + 2 cosθ
F = F 2 (1 + cosθ)
1 = 2 (1 + cosθ)
1 = 2 (1 + cosθ)
𝟏
= (1 + cosθ)
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
− 𝟐 = cos θ; θ = cos−1 (− 𝟐 ) = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
 Dot and Cross Products of Vector Pairs
1. Dot Product (Scalar Product)
The dot product of two vectors A and B is a scalar quantity defined as:
𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 =∣ 𝐀 ∣ ∣ 𝐁 ∣ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛉
where
∣A∣ and ∣B∣= magnitudes of the vectors
θ = angle between the vectors

Vector Form:
𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 = 𝐀𝐱𝐁𝐱 + 𝐀𝐲𝐁𝐲 + 𝐀𝐳​𝐁𝐳
✓ Result is a scalar (just a number, no direction).
✓ Measures how much one vector extends in the direction of the other (projection).
✓ Special cases:
θ = 0° A⋅B = AB (maximum)
θ = 90° A⋅B = 0 (perpendicular vectors)

Ԧ
Force x Displacement = Work (W = 𝐹. 𝑑)
(vector) x (vector) = scalar

The dot product

W= F d cos θ
 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩𝒙 = 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 = AB cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃 = 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 / AB B

𝐵 sin 𝜃
𝐵 cos 𝛼
𝛼
𝜃
Basic Unit Vectors in dot product:
𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝒊.Ƹ 𝒊Ƹ = 1 𝒊.Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ = 0 A
𝐵 sin 𝛼
𝒋.Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ = 1 ෡=0
𝒋.Ƹ 𝒌
෡𝒌
𝒌. ෡=1 ෡ 𝒊Ƹ = 0
𝒌.

✓ Commutative: 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 = 𝑩 . 𝑨

✓ Distributive: 𝑨 ⋅ (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩) + (𝑨 ⋅ 𝑪)
✓ Scalar result: Output is always a number (no direction).
✓ If vectors are perpendicular, 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 =0

✓ If vectors are parallel, 𝑨 ⋅ 𝑩 =∣ 𝐀∣∣ 𝐁 ∣

 Dot and Cross Products of Vector Pairs
2. Cross Product
The cross product of two vectors A and B is a vector defined as:
𝐀 × 𝐁 =∣ 𝐀 ∣ ∣ 𝐁 ∣ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛉 ෝ
𝒏
where
θ = angle between A and B
ෝ𝑛 = unit vector perpendicular to the plane of A and B

Vector Form:
𝒊Ƹ 𝒋Ƹ ෡
𝒌
𝐀 × 𝐁 = 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛

✓ Result is a vector perpendicular to both A and B.

✓ Magnitude equals the area of the parallelogram formed by A and B.
✓ Special cases:
θ = 0° or 180° A×B = 0 (parallel vectors)
θ = 90° ∣A×B∣ = AB (maximum)
Basic Unit Vectors in dot product:
If a = 4î + 3ĵ + 7k̂ and b = 2î + 5ĵ + 4k̂ what is a x b?

Given: a = 4î + 3ĵ + 7k̂
b = 2î + 5ĵ + 4k̂

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
axb= 𝟒 𝟑 𝟕
𝟐 𝟓 𝟒

For (i): 3(4) - 7(5) = 12 - 35 = -23

For (j): 4(4) - 7(2) = 16 - 14 = 2
For (k): 4(5) - 3(2) = 20 - 6 = 14

a x b=−23i−2j+14k
1) p=6i−2j+3k, q=1i+4j−5kp, find p x q

2) u =2𝑖+0𝑗+1𝑘, v =−1𝑖+3𝑗+4𝑘, find u × v

3) m =4𝑖+2𝑗+0𝑘, n =3𝑖−1𝑗+5𝑘, find m × n

4) Prove: a × b = (a2b3 −​a3b2)i + (a3b1 −​a1b3)j + (a1b2 −​a2b1)k

1) p=6i−2j+3k, q=1i+4j−5kp, find p x q

𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
pxq= 𝟔 −𝟐 𝟑
𝟏 𝟒 −𝟓

For (i): 10-12 =-2

For (j): -30-3 = -33
For (k): 24+2 = 26

𝐩 x 𝐪 = -2i+33j+26k
2) u =2𝑖+0𝑗+1𝑘, v =−1𝑖+3𝑗+4𝑘, find u × v

𝒖 x 𝒗 =(−3)i−(9)j+(6)k

3) m =4𝑖+2𝑗+0𝑘, n =3𝑖−1𝑗+5𝑘, find m × n

𝐦 × 𝐧 = 10i−20j−10k
For the vectors p = i + j + k, q = −i − j − k show that, in this special case, p × q = q × p. 3.

For the vectors a = i + 2j + 3k, b = 2i + 3j + k, c = 7i + 2j + k, show that a × (b + c) = (a × b) + (a × c)

 Free Body Diagram (FBD)
A free body diagram is a simplified representation of an object isolated from its surroundings,
showing all external forces acting on it.

✓ Serves as the starting point for applying Newton's laws.

✓ Clarifies which forces are acting and their points of application.
✓ Essential for solving mechanics, statics, and dynamics problems.
✓ Used in structural design, machine analysis, robotics, automotive, and aerospace
engineering.

N
 Steps to draw FBD
You can draw a free-body diagram of an object following 3 steps:
➢ Sketch what is happening
➢ Determine the forces that act on the object
➢ Draw the object in isolation with the forces that act on it
Step 1: Sketch what is happening
➢ Read the problem carefully, then draw the object in its environment.
➢ Show the main forces acting (push, pull, friction, etc.).
➢ Helps visualize the physical situation clearly.

Step 2: Determine the forces acting on the object

Identify all forces from your sketch:
➢ Applied force (Push, F)
➢ Friction force (Ff, opposite to motion)
➢ Gravitational force (mg, downward)
➢ Normal force (N, upward from surface)

Step 3: Draw the object in isolation (FBD)

➢ Remove all surroundings (floor, walls, etc.).
➢ Show only the object with arrows representing each force.
➢ Each arrow must indicate correct direction and type of force.
 Examples of drawing free-body diagrams
Example: A box is pushed up an incline with friction which makes an angle of 20° with the
horizontal. Let's draw the free-body diagram of the box.

The first step is to sketch what is happening

The next step is to look at the sketch, and compute all the forces to which the box is subject:

✓ upward push (F)

✓ force of friction (Ff)
✓ normal force (N)
✓ force of gravity (mg)
The final step is to draw the box with the 4 forces that act on it:
Example: A mass hangs from a rope attached to the ceiling. Let's draw the FBD of the hanging
mass.
Example: A mass hangs from a rope attached to the ceiling. Let's draw the FBD of the hanging
mass.
Example: A sphere is hanging from two ropes attached to the ceiling. The first rope makes an
angle of 30° with the ceiling, while the second rope makes an angle of 45° with the ceiling.
Example: A sphere is hanging from two ropes attached to the ceiling. The first rope makes an
angle of 30° with the ceiling, while the second rope makes an angle of 45° with the ceiling.
 Determining the Net Force
The actual magnitudes of the individual forces are indicated on the diagram.

In each of the above situations, there is an unbalanced force. It is commonly said that in each
situation there is a net force acting upon the object. The net force is the vector sum of all the
forces that act upon an object.

✓ Net force = vector sum of all forces acting on an object.

✓ If forces are unbalanced → net force ≠ 0, object accelerates.
✓ If forces are balanced → net force = 0, object is in equilibrium (no acceleration, Newtons 1st
Law).
Question:
An applied force of 50 N is used to accelerate an object to the right across a horizontal,
frictional surface. The object encounters 10 N of friction. The gravitational force acting on the
object is 80 N. Draw FBD and determine:
1.The normal force acting on the object.
2.The net force acting on the object.
3.The mass of the object.
4.The acceleration of the object.
(Neglect air resistance.) (g = 10 m/s2)
 N

Ff = 10 N Fapp = 50 N

Fgrav = 80 N
(1) Normal (Vertical forces balance):
N–W=0
N = W = 80N

(2) Net force (horizontal)

Fnet = Fapp – Ff
50 - 10 = 40 N (to the right)

(3) Mass
m = W/g
m = 80/10=8.0 kg

(4) Acceleration
F = ma
a=F/m = 40/8 = 5 m/s2
 Composition of Forces
The process of finding out the resultant force, of a number of given forces, is called composition
of forces or compounding of forces. y
F2
F1

𝜶𝟐 𝜶𝟏
𝜶𝟑 x
𝜶𝟒

F3 F4
Components of each force:
ΣFx​=F1​ cosα1 − F2 ​cosα2 ​−F3 ​cosα3 ​+ F4 ​cosα4
​ΣFy=F1 sin𝛼1 + F2 sin𝛼2 −F3 sin𝛼3 − F4 sin𝛼4
y
R
Resultant Force:
Magnitude
𝑹 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝑹= (𝜮𝑭𝒙 )𝟐 + (𝜮𝑭𝒚 )𝟐 𝜽
x
O 𝑹 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
Direction:
𝜮𝑭𝒚
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 =
𝜮𝑭𝒙

If a body is in equilibrium the resultant force 𝑅 = 0.

Equivalent conditions: Σ𝐹𝑥 = 0 and Σ𝐹𝑦 = 0
Questions: The following forces act at a point :
(i) 20 N inclined at 30° towards North of East,
(ii) 25 N towards North,
(iii) 30 N towards North West at 45° ,
(iv) 35 N inclined at 40° towards South of West.
Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant force.
Magnitude of the resultant force:
Resolving all the forces horizontally i.e., along East-West line,
Horizontal
ΣFx = 20 𝑐𝑜s 30∘ + 25 𝑐𝑜s 90∘ + 30 𝑐𝑜s 135∘ + 35 𝑐𝑜s 220∘ N

= (20 × 0.866) + (25 × 0) + 30(−0.707) + 35(−0.766)N

= −30.7 N
Vertical
ΣFy = 20si n 30∘ + 25si n 90∘ + 30si n 135∘ + 35si n 220∘ N

= (20 × 0.5) + (25 × 1.0) + (30 × 0.707) + 35(−0.6428)N

= 33.7 N
Resultant Force

𝑅= ΣFx 2 + ΣFy 2 = ൫−30.7)2 + (33.7)2 = 45.6 N

Direction of the resultant force
Let 𝜃 = Angle, we know that

𝐹𝑦 33.7
tan 𝜃 = = = −1.098 or 𝜃 = 47.7∘
𝐹𝑥 −30.7
Since ∑ Fx is negative and ∑ Fy is positive, therefore resultant lies between 90∘ and 180∘ .
Thus actual angle of the resultant = 180∘ − 47.7∘ = 132.3∘ Ans.
Two wires are attached to a bolt in a foundation as shown in Figure. Determine the pull exerted
by the bolt on the foundation.
Given:
➢ F1: 6650 N at 15° above horizontal (to the left)
➢ F2: 3600 N at 25° above horizontal (to the right)

Resolve Horizontal & Vertical Components

ΣFx =3600 cos (25°) − 6650 cos (15°) = 3262.68 − 6422.24 = − 3160 N

ΣFy = 3600 sin (25°) + 6650 sin (15°) = 1521.36 + 1719.22 = 3242 N
Resultant Force
𝑅= ΣFx 2 + ΣFy 2 = ൫−3160)2 + (3242)2 = 4527 N

Direction of the resultant force

𝐹𝑦 3242
α = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝐹 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 3160 = 45° 73’
𝑥
 LAMI'S THEOREM
If three coplanar forces acting at a point be in equilibrium, then each force is proportional to the
sine of the angle between the other two.

Mathematically,

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾

where, 𝑃, 𝑄, and 𝑅 are three forces and 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are the angles as shown in fig.

✓ Forces must be concurrent (meet at a point).

✓ Forces must be coplanar (lie in the same plane).
✓ System must be in equilibrium (resultant = 0).
Proof
➢ Consider three coplanar forces P,Q, and R acting at a point O
➢ The opposite angles to three forces be 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾
∠𝐶𝐴𝑂 = 180∘ − (∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 + ∠𝐴𝐶𝑂)
= 180∘ − 180∘ − 𝛽 + 180∘ − 𝛼
= 180∘ − 180∘ + 𝛽 − 180∘ + 𝛼
= 𝜶 + 𝜷 − 𝟏𝟖𝟎∘
➢ We know: 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 360∘
Subtracting 180∘ from both sides of the above equation,
𝛼 + 𝛽 − 180∘ + 𝛾 = 360∘ − 180∘ = 180∘
∴ ∠𝑪𝑨𝑶 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎∘ − 𝜸

➢ We know that in triangle 𝐴𝑂𝐶,

𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐶
sin ∠𝐴𝐶𝑂
= sin ∠𝐴𝑂𝐶 = sin ∠𝐶𝐴𝑂 (from sin formula).

𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝐶 𝑂𝐶
= sin = sin
sin 180∘ −𝛼 180∘ −𝛽 180∘ −𝛾

𝑃 𝑄 𝑅
= =
sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽 sin 𝛾
 45° 60° A
B An electric light fixture weighing 15 N hangs from point C by two strings
AC and BC . String AC is inclined at 60∘ to the horizontal (to the right),
C and string BC is inclined at 45∘ to the horizontal (to the left), as shown in
the figure.
15 N Find the tensions in strings AC and BC .
Solution:
Angle between the two strings:
45° 60° A
∠𝐴𝐶𝐵 = 180∘ − 60∘ + 45∘ = 75∘ B

Angle between the TAC and 15 N

∠ACX = 180∘ - 30∘ = 150∘ C

Angle between the TBC and 15 N 15 N

∠BCX = 180∘ - 45∘ = 135∘

Applying Lami's Theorem (three concurrent forces in equilibrium)

𝑊 𝑇𝐴𝐶 𝑇𝐵𝐶
= =
sin 75∘ sin 135∘ sin 150∘

15 𝑇𝐴𝐶 𝑇𝐵𝐶
= =
sin 75∘ sin 135∘ sin 150∘

We know X
sin 75∘ = 0.9659, sin 135∘ = 0.7071 sin 150∘ = 0.5
 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟑𝟓∘ 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝟏
𝑻𝑨𝑪 = 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓 ≈ 𝟏𝟎. 𝟗𝟖 𝐍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟕𝟓∘ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟏𝟓𝟎∘ 𝟎. 𝟓
𝑻𝑩𝑪 =𝑾 = 𝟏𝟓 ≈ 𝟕. 𝟕𝟔 𝐍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟕𝟓∘ 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟓𝟗
A light string ABCDE whose extremity A is fixed, has weights W1 and W2 attached to it at B and
C. It passes round a small smooth peg at D carrying a weight of 300 N at the free end E as
shown in Fig.

If in the equilibrium position, BC is horizontal and AB and CD make 150∘ and 120∘ with BC, find
(i) Tensions in the portion AB, BC and CD of the string and (ii) Magnitudes of W1 and W2 .
Given : Weight at E = 300 N
➢ Split up the string ABCD into two parts.
➢ The system of forces at joints B and C is shown in
Fig. (a) and (b).
➢ Angles are given: ∠ABC = 150°, ∠BCD = 120°
➢ Other angles:
∠W2CD = 150°
∠ABW1 = 120°
∠W1BC = ∠BCW2 = 90°
➢ Let, Tension in BC = TBC​, Tension in CD = TCD​ and Tension in AB = TAB
Also, TCD = TDE = 300 N
➢ Applying Lami’s theorem at point C
𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝑊2 300
= =
sin 150∘ sin 120∘ sin 90∘
𝑇𝐵𝐶 𝑊2 300
= =
sin 30∘ sin 60∘ 1

∴ 𝑻𝑩𝑪 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎∘ = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝐍

𝑾𝟐 = 𝟑𝟎𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎∘ = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 × 𝟎. 𝟖𝟔𝟔 = 𝟐𝟓𝟗. 𝟖 𝐍
➢ Applying Lami's equation at 𝐵,

𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝑊1 𝑇𝐵𝐶
== =
sin 90∘ sin 150∘ sin 120∘

𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝑊1 150
= =
1 sin 30∘ sin 60∘

𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑻𝑨𝑩 = = = 𝟏𝟕𝟑. 𝟐 𝐍
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎∘ 𝟎.𝟖𝟔𝟔

𝟏𝟓𝟎𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟑𝟎∘ 𝟏𝟓𝟎×𝟎.𝟓

𝑾𝟏 = = = 𝟖𝟔. 𝟔 N
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟔𝟎∘ 𝟎.𝟖𝟔𝟔
 Force in space
A force in space is a vector quantity that acts on a particle in three-dimensional (3D) space.
Unlike forces in a plane (2D), a force in space has magnitude, direction, and sense along all
three coordinate axes (x, y, z).

F = Fxî + Fyĵ + Fzk̂

The magnitude of the force is given by:

𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 + 𝐹𝑧2

The direction cosines (angles between the force vector and the coordinate axes) are:
𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧
cos α= , cos β= , cos 𝛾=
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
Fx = F cos 𝛼, Fy = F cos β, Fz = F cos 𝛾,
A force of 500 N forms angles of 60°, 45°, and 120°, respectively, with the x, y, and z axes. Find
the components Fx, Fy, and Fz of the force.

Given:
F = 500 N
𝛼 = 60° β = 45° 𝛾 = 120°

Fx = (500 N) cos 60° = 1250 N

Fy = (500 N) cos 45° = 1354 N
Fz = (500 N) cos 120° = -250 N

F = (250 N)i + (354 N)j - (250 N)k

minus sign indicates that it has the opposite sense.