Unit 1

What is a Computer Network?

o Computer Network is a group of computers connected with each other through

wires, optical fibres or optical links so that various devices can interact with each
other through a network.
o The aim of the computer network is the sharing of resources among various devices.
o In the case of computer network technology, there are several types of networks that
vary from simple to complex level.
Uses Of Computer Network

o Resource sharing: Resource sharing is the sharing of resources such as programs,

printers, and data among the users on the network without the requirement of the
physical location of the resource and user.
o Server-Client model: Computer networking is used in the server-client model. A
server is a central computer used to store the information and maintained by the
system administrator. Clients are the machines used to access the information stored
in the server remotely.
o Communication medium: Computer network behaves as a communication medium
among the users. For example, a company contains more than one computer has an
email system which the employees use for daily communication.
o E-commerce: Computer network is also important in businesses. We can do the
business over the internet. For example, amazon.com is doing their business over the
internet, i.e., they are doing their business over the internet.

Computer Network Components/ Hardware:

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software. Some
important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the
type of network that we need to install, some network components can also be removed. For
example, the wireless network does not require a cable.
Following are the major components required to install a network:
NIC

o NIC stands for network interface card.

o NIC is a hardware component used to connect a computer with another computer onto a
network
o It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
o The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned
by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM
(Programmable read-only memory).
There are two types of NIC:
 1. Wired NIC
2. Wireless NIC

Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with
wired NIC to transfer data.
Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless
network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.
Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When
computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub through
cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check whether the
request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of communication.
Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced computer network
components such as Switches, Routers.
Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch
contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides where
the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based on the
physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the message to the
entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to be transmitted.
Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection between the source and destination. It
increases the speed of the network.
Router

o A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It
is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
o A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
o A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
o It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
Advantages Of Router:

o Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable,
but the only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
o Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other
networks are affected that are served by the router.
o Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are 24
workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic load
on the network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations each,
 reduces the traffic load by half.
o Network range
Modem

o A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the
existing telephone line.
o A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot
found on the motherboard.
o It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over
the telephone lines.
Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the following
categories:

o Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

o Cellular Modem
o Cable modem
Cables and Connectors
Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.
There are three types of cables used in transmission:

o Twisted pair cable

o Coaxial cable
o Fibre-optic cable

Network Software:
Network software encompasses a broad range of software used for design, implementation,
and operation and monitoring of computer networks. Traditional networks were hardware
based with software embedded. With the advent of Software – Defined Networking (SDN),
software is separated from the hardware thus making it more adaptable to the ever-changing
nature of the computer network.
Functions of Network Software
o Helps to set up and install computer networks
o Enables users to have access to network resources in a seamless manner
o Allows administrations to add or remove users from the network
o Helps to define locations of data storage and allows users to access that data
o Helps administrators and security system to protect the network from data breaches,
unauthorized access and attacks on a network
o Enables network virtualizations
SDN Framework
The Software Defined Networking framework has three layers as depicted in the following
diagram −
o APPLICATION LAYER − SDN applications reside in the Application Layer. The
applications convey their needs for resources and services to the control layer through APIs.
o CONTROL LAYER − The Network Control Software, bundled into the Network Operating
System, lies in this layer. It provides an abstract view of the underlying network
infrastructure. It receives the requirements of the SDN applications and relays them to
the network components.
o INFRASTRUCTURE LAYER − Also called the Data Plane Layer, this layer contains the
actual network components. The network devices reside in this layer that shows their network
capabilities through the Control to data-Plane Interface.
Reference Models:
A reference model in computer networks is a conceptual framework that helps describe how a
networking system functions and how its components relate to each other. The Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model that guides developers and vendors in
creating software and digital communications products that work together.
In computer networks, reference models give a conceptual framework that standardizes
communication between heterogeneous networks.
The two popular reference models are −
o OSI Model
o TCP/IP Protocol Suite

OSI Model

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes how
information from a software application in one computer moves through a physical
medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-
computer communications.
o OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
o Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
 independently.

 The OSI model is divided into two layers: upper layers and lower layers.
 The upper layer of the OSI model mainly deals with the application related issues,
and they are implemented only in the software. The application layer is closest to the
end user. Both the end user and the application layer interact with the software
applications. An upper layer refers to the layer just above another layer.
 The lower layer of the OSI model deals with the data transport issues. The data link
layer and the physical layer are implemented in hardware and software. The physical
layer is the lowest layer of the OSI model and is closest to the physical medium. The
physical layer is mainly responsible for placing the information on the physical
medium.
7 Layers of OSI Model
There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has different functions. A list of seven layers are
given below:

o Physical Layer
o Data-Link Layer
o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
 o Application Layer

1) Physical layer

 The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
 It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
 It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
 It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.
2) Data-Link Layer
 o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.
o It contains two sub-layers:
o Logical Link Control Layer

 It is responsible for transferring the packets to the Network layer of the

receiver that is receiving.
 It identifies the address of the network layer protocol from the header.
 It also provides flow control.
o Media Access Control Layer
 A Media access control layer is a link between the Logical Link
Control layer and the network's physical layer.
 It is used for transferring the packets over the network.
Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.
 o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that
no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with
higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing
speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr,
then the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted
frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device has control over the link at a given time.
3) Network Layer

 It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
  It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
 The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
 Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
 The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.
Functions of Network Layer:

 Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer.

It provides a logical connection between different devices.
 Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header
of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
 Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
 Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).
4) Transport Layer

 The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
 The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
 It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known
as segments.
 This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.
The two protocols used in this layer are:

 Transmission Control Protocol

 It is a standard protocol that allows the systems to communicate over the
internet.
 It establishes and maintains a connection between hosts.
 When data is sent over the TCP connection, then the TCP protocol divides the
data into smaller units known as segments. Each segment travels over the
internet using multiple routes, and they arrive in different orders at the
destination. The transmission control protocol reorders the packets in the
correct order at the receiving end.
 User Datagram Protocol
 User Datagram Protocol is a transport layer protocol.
 It is an unreliable transport protocol as in this case receiver does not send any
acknowledgment when the packet is received, the sender does not wait for any
acknowledgment. Therefore, this makes a protocol unreliable.
Functions of Transport Layer:

 Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs simultaneously due to this

reason, the transmission of data from source to the destination not only from one
computer to another computer but also from one process to another process. The
transport layer adds the header that contains the address known as a service-point
address or port address. The responsibility of the network layer is to transmit the data
from one computer to another computer and the responsibility of the transport layer is
to transmit the message to the correct process.
 Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from
the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment. When the
message has arrived at the destination, then the transport layer reassembles the
message based on their sequence numbers.
 Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service. A connectionless service treats each segment as
an individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the destination. A
connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at the
destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented service, all
the packets travel in the single route.
 Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
 Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control is
performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.
5) Session Layer
  It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
 The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.
Functions of Session layer:

 Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
 Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in
a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.
6) Presentation Layer
  A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
 It acts as a data translator for a network.
 This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
 The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.
Functions of Presentation layer:

 Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
 Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
 Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces
the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in
multimedia such as text, audio, video.
7) Application Layer
  An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
 It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
 This layer provides the network services to the end-users.
Functions of Application layer:

 File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user to
access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
 Mail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
 Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is
used to provide that global information about various object.

TCP/IP Model


The TCP/IP model is a fundamental framework for computer networking. It stands for
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, which are the core protocols of the Internet.
This model defines how data is transmitted over networks, ensuring reliable communication
between devices. It consists of four layers: the Link Layer, the Internet Layer, the Transport
Layer, and the Application Layer. Each layer has specific functions that help manage
different aspects of network communication, making it essential for understanding and
working with modern networks.

How Does the TCP/IP Model Work?

Whenever we want to send something over the internet using the TCP/IP Model, the
TCP/IP Model divides the data into packets at the sender’s end and the same packets have
to be recombined at the receiver’s end to form the same data, and this thing happens to
maintain the accuracy of the data. TCP/IP model divides the data into a 4-layer procedure,
where the data first go into this layer in one order and again in reverse order to get
organized in the same way at the receiver’s end.
Layers of TCP/IP Model
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer(TCP/UDP)
 Network/Internet Layer(IP)
 Network Access Layer

1. Network Access Layer

It is a group of applications requiring network communications. This layer is responsible
for generating the data and requesting connections. It acts on behalf of the sender and the
Network Access layer on the behalf of the receiver.
The packet’s network protocol type, in this case, TCP/IP, is identified by network access
layer. Error prevention and “framing” are also provided by this layer. Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP) framing and Ethernet IEEE 802.2 framing are two examples of data-link
layer protocols.
2. Internet or Network Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer. It defines the protocols which are
responsible for the logical transmission of data over the entire network. The main protocols
residing at this layer are as follows:
 IP:IPstands for Internet Protocol and it is responsible for delivering packets from the
source host to the destination host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6. IPv4 is the one that most websites are using currently.
But IPv6 is growing as the number of IPv4 addresses is limited in number when
compared to the number of users.
 ICMP:ICMPstands for Internet Control Message Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP
datagrams and is responsible for providing hosts with information about network
problems.
 ARP:ARPstands for Address Resolution Protocol. Its job is to find the hardware
address of a host from a known IP address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy
ARP, Gratuitous ARP, and Inverse ARP.
3. Transport Layer
The TCP/IP transport layer protocols exchange data receipt acknowledgments and
retransmit missing packets to ensure that packets arrive in order and without error. End-to-
end communication is referred to as such. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol are transport layer protocols at this level (UDP).
 TCP: Applications can interact with one another usingTCPas though they were
physically connected by a circuit. TCP transmits data in a way that resembles character-
by-character transmission rather than separate packets. A starting point that establishes
the connection, the whole transmission in byte order, and an ending point that closes the
connection make up this transmission.
  UDP: The datagram delivery service is provided byUDP, the other transport layer
protocol. Connections between receiving and sending hosts are not verified by UDP.
Applications that transport little amounts of data use UDP rather than TCP because it
eliminates the processes of establishing and validating connections.
4. Application Layer
This layer is analogous to the transport layer of the OSI model. It is responsible for end-to-
end communication and error-free delivery of data. It shields the upper-layer applications
from the complexities of data. The three main protocols present in this layer are:
 HTTP and HTTPS:HTTPstands for Hypertext transfer protocol. It is used by the
World Wide Web to manage communications between web browsers and servers.
HTTPS stands for HTTP-Secure. It is a combination of HTTP with SSL(Secure Socket
Layer). It is efficient in cases where the browser needs to fill out forms, sign in,
authenticate, and carry out bank transactions.
 SSH:SSHstands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal emulations software similar to Telnet.
The reason SSH is preferred is because of its ability to maintain the encrypted
connection. It sets up a secure session over a TCP/IP connection.
 NTP:NTPstands for Network Time Protocol. It is used to synchronize the clocks on our
computer to one standard time source. It is very useful in situations like bank
transactions. Assume the following situation without the presence of NTP. Suppose you
carry out a transaction, where your computer reads the time at 2:30 PM while the server
records it at 2:28 PM. The server can crash very badly if it’s out of sync.
Examples of networks:
 Local area network (LAN)
A LAN connects devices within a limited area, such as a home or office building. A router
acts as the central node for the network, and devices connect to it wirelessly.
 Wireless local area network (WLAN)
A WLAN is similar to a LAN, but it transmits data wirelessly. A home Wi-Fi network is an
example of a WLAN.
 Metropolitan area network (MAN)
A MAN is a network that connects multiple LANs within a city or large college campus. A
MAN can use wired or wireless connections, such as Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, or fiber
optics. A local cable TV company or telephone company are examples of MANs.
 Wide area network (WAN)
A WAN connects computers over a large geographical area, such as across multiple cities
or countries. The internet is the most common example of a WAN.
 Personal area network (PAN)
A PAN is a small-scale network that connects devices within a user's immediate area. For
example, a Bluetooth earpiece and a smartphone are connected via a PAN.

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Guided Transmission Media in Computer

Network
Communication is an essential component of
the vast field of computer networks, which
depends on a variety of transmission methods
to enable data exchange. In this procedure,
guided transmission media also referred to as
bounded or wired media, are essential. These
media are the actual channels that direct signals
between connected devices in a network. We
shall examine the different types, traits, and
uses of guided transmission medium in
computer networks as we dig into their
complexities in this article.
Types of Guided Transmission Media

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

o Description: To try to reduce

electromagnetic interference, insulated
copper wires are twisted together in
pairs to create twisted pair cables.
Twisted pair is a physical media made
up of a pair of cables twisted with each
other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as
compared to other transmission media.
Installation of the twisted pair cable is
easy, and it is a lightweight cable. The
frequency range for twisted pair cable is
from 0 to 3.5KHz.
o Characteristics: Twisted pair cables
have become common in LANs and
phone lines. They are available in two
types: unprotected twisted pair and
shielded twisted pair.
A twisted pair consists of two insulated
copper wires arranged in a regular spiral
pattern.
The degree of reduction in noise interference is
determined by the number of turns per foot.
Increasing the number of turns per foot
decreases noise interference.

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair:
An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in
telecommunication. Following are the
categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:

o Category 1: Category 1 is used for

telephone lines that have low-speed
data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto
16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto
20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for
long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto
200Mbps.
Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted
pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.
Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter

distances because of attenuation.
Shielded Twisted Pair
ADVERTISEMENT
A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains
the mesh surrounding the wire that allows the
higher transmission rate.
Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair

cable is not very high and not very low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to
unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
 o It is shielded that provides the higher
data transmission rate.
Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to

UTP and coaxial cable.
o It has a higher attenuation rate.
Coaxial Cable

o Coaxial cable is very commonly used

transmission media, for example, TV
wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it
contains two conductors parallel to each
other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared
to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable
is made up of copper, and the outer
conductor is made up of copper mesh.
The middle core is made up of non-
conductive cover that separates the
inner conductor from the outer
conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the
data transferring whereas the copper
mesh prevents from
the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined

as the process of transmitting a single
signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined
as the process of transmitting multiple
signals simultaneously.
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high

speed.
o It has better shielding as compared to
 twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to

twisted pair cable.
o If any fault occurs in the cable causes
the failure in the entire network.
Fibre Optic

o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses

electrical signals for communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the
optical fibres coated in plastic that are
used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical
fibres from heat, cold, electromagnetic
interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data
transmission than copper wires.
Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic
cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o Core: The optical fibre consists of a

narrow strand of glass or plastic known
as a core. A core is a light transmission
area of the fibre. The more the area of
the core, the more light will be
transmitted into the fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass
is known as cladding. The main
functionality of the cladding is to
provide the lower refractive index at the
core interface as to cause the reflection
within the core so that the light waves
are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating
 consisting of plastic is known as a
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is
to preserve the fibre strength, absorb
shock and extra fibre protection.
Following are the advantages of fibre optic
cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic

cable provides more bandwidth as
compared copper. Therefore, the fibre
optic carries more data as compared to
copper cable.
o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries
the data in the form of light. This allows
the fibre optic cable to carry the signals
at a higher speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable
carries the data at a longer distance as
compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable
is more reliable than the copper cable as
it is immune to any temperature
changes while it can cause obstruct in
the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic
cable is thinner and lighter in weight so
it can withstand more pull pressure than
copper cable.
4. Guided Media Connectors:

o Description: Connectors are parts that

connect parts of guided media so that
continuous communication channels
may be created.
o Characteristics: To be able to offer
stable and efficient communication in
computer networks, a variety of
connectors are important, such as BNC
connectors for coaxial cables and RJ-45
connectors for twisted pair cables.