Module 2

MODULE 2

DIRECTING AND CONTROLLING,:

Definition:

Means issuance of orders and leading and motivating subordinates as they go about executing
orders Consists of the process and techniques utilized in issuing instructions and making certain
that operations are carried on as originally planned.

Is a vital in managerial function Is used to stimulate action by giving direction to his subordinates
through orders and also supervise their work to ensure that the plans and policies achieve the
desired actions and results.

To conclude direction is the process of utilizing the techniques in issuing instructions and making
certain that operations are carried out on as originally planned.

Requirements or principles of effective direction:

1) Harmony of objectives:

The goals of its members must be in complete harmony with the goals of an organization

The manager must direct the subordinates in such a way that they that they perceive their goals
to be in harmony with enterprise objectives.

For Example the company’s profits may be associated with the employee’s gains by giving
additional bonus or promotion.
2) Unity of Command:
The subordinates must receive orders and instructions from one supervisor only the violation of which
may lead to conflicting orders, divided loyalties and decreased personal responsibility for results.
3) Direct supervision
Every supervisor must maintain face-to-face contact with his subordinates which boosts the morale of
the employees, increases their loyalty and provides them with feedback on how well they are doing.
3) Efficient Communication:

Communication is an instrument of direction through which the supervisor gives orders,

allocates jobs and explains duties and ensures performance.
Is a two way process which enables the superior to know how his subordinates feel
about the company and how the company feels on a number of issues concerning them.
In communication comprehension is more important than the content.
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2) Follow-through:

Is an act of following through the whole performance of his subordinates to keep check on their
activities, help them in their cat and point out deficiencies if any and revise their direction if
required.

Leadership Styles:

Three leadership styles widely used:

1) Traits approach
2) Behavioral approach
3) Contingency approach
Traits approach:

Trait is basically a character and deals with personal abilities and assumed to be God’s gift and
abilities are identified as mental and physical energy, emotional stability, knowledge of human
relations, empathy, objectivity, personal motivation, communication skills, teaching ability, social
skills, technical competence, friendliness and affection, integrity and faith, intelligence etc.
Traits approaches –

Trait theories argue that leaders share a number of common personality traits and characteristics,
and that leadership emerges from these traits.

Early trait theories promoted the idea that leadership is an innate, instinctive quality that you
either have or don't have.

Now we have moved on from this approach, and we're learning more about what we can do as
individuals to develop leadership qualities within ourselves and others.

Traits are external behaviours that emerge from things going on within the leader's mind
– and it's these internal beliefs and processes that are important for effective leadership.

2 .Behavioral approach –

Behavioral theories focus on how leaders behave.
There are three types of leaders:
a. Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This is considered appropriate
when decisions genuinely need to be taken quickly, when there's no need for input, and when team
agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome.

b. Democratic leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision, although the degree of
input can vary from leader to leader. This type of style is important when team agreement matters, but it
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can be quite difficult to manage when there are lots of different perspectives and ideas.
c. Laissez-faire leaders don't interfere; they allow people within the team to make many of the decisions.
This works well when the team is highly capable and motivated, and when it doesn't need close
monitoring or supervision. However, this style can arise because the leader is lazy or distracted, and, here,
this approach can fail.
3. Contingency approach–

Situation influencing good leadership

The realization that there isn't one correct type of leader led to theories that the best leadership
style is contingent on, or depends on, the situation.
These theories try to predict which leadership style is best in which circumstance.

Motivation theories:

1) Maslow’s need hierarchy theory

2) Herzberg’s two factor theory
3) McClelland’s achievement theory
4) Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory
5) Adams equity theory
6) Skinners behaviour modification theory

1) Maslow’s need hierarchy theory:

An unsatisfied need is the basis for the motivation process and the starting point and begins the chain of
events leading to behaviour as shown in the figure below.

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Order of priority of human needs begins with the person’s unsatisfied need at the lowest level-
identification of the need develops in the form of as goal which leads to the fulfilment of the need
to achieve the goal.

These needs are arranged in the form of a ladder of five successive categories as shown in the figure
above.
(i)Physiological needs: Arise of the basic physiology of life like the need for food, water, air, etc
which must be at least satisfied partially for continued survival. (ii)Security needs: Needs to feel
free from economic threat and physical harm which need protection from arbitrary lay-off and
dismissal, disaster and avoidance of the unexpected.
(iii) Egoistic needs: are the needs which relate to respect and prestige the need for dominance for
example.

Can be classified as self-esteem and esteem from others. Self esteem is the need for
worthiness of oneself and the esteem is the necessity to think others that he is worthy

(iv) Self-fulfilment needs: are the needs to realize ones potential that is realizing one’s own capabilities to
the fullest-for accomplishing what one is capable of to the fullest. example a musician must make music
etc.
According to Maslow, people attempt satisfy their physical needs first. as long as the needs are unsatisfied
they dominate and after they become reasonably satisfied and progress to the next level and so on.

Herzberg’s Two-factor theory:

Original study based on the research by Fredrick and Herzberg who interviewed 200
engineers and accountants and were asked about the good times and bad times they think
about their jobs.

Out of these interviews two factors emerged called the

I Maintenance factors
II Motivators or satisfiers.

I Maintenance factors (Factor 1)

1) Fair company polices and administration
2) A supervisor who knows the work
3) A good relationship with ones supervisor.
4) A good relationship with one’s peers.
5) A good relationship with ones subordinates.

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6) A fair salary
7) Job security
8) Personal life
9) Good working conditions
10) Status
II) Motivators or satisfiers (Factor 2)

1) Opportunity to accomplish something significant

2) Recognition for significant achievements
3) Chance for advancement
4) Opportunity to grow and develop on the job
5) Chance for increased responsibility
6) The job itself.

Some facts about the two factors:

1) Motivators are job centered
2) Maintenance factors are related working conditions and environmental conditions.
3) These two groups of factors are also known as intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
4) These two sets of factors are unidirectional.

McClelland’s need for achievement theory:

According to McClelland there are three important

needs (i)The need for affiliation
(ii)the need for power
(iii)the need for achievement

(i)Need for affiliation:

Reflects desire to interact socially with people Concerned about the quality of an important
personal relationship

(ii) The need for power:

Person having high need for power tries to exercise the power and authority Concerned with
influencing others and winning arguments
(iii) The need for achievement (n Ach):
Has three distinct characteristics
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(a)preference in setting moderately difficult b ut potentially achievable goals

(b) Doing most things himself rather than getting them done by others and willing to take
personal responsibility for his success or failure and does not want to hold responsible for
it.
(c) Seeking situations where concrete feedback is possible.
4) Victor Vroom’s Expectancy theory:

Works under conditions of free choice where an ind ividual is motivated towards activity which he is most
capable of rendering and which he believes has the highest probability of leading to his most preferred
goal. The basic concepts of this theory are
1) First and second level outcomes:

Job related goals before an individual such as promotion, increase in salary, recognition, and
praise and so on are called second level outcomes.

Each second level outcome can be associated with a value called valence for each individual.

The valence can be positive, negative or zero

Valence positive: individual wants to attain promotion Valence
negative: does not want to attain promotion
Valence ze ro: outcome towards which he is indifferent Second level outcomes can be achieved in
different ways:
(i)promotion by leaving the organization , by absenting himself to show dissatisfaction, by joining
a pressure group, by attending a training programme, or developing intimacy with the boss, by
bribing somebody, by improving performance or by bribing somebody and so on.

2) Instrumentality:

All first level outcomes have equal probability of leading the individual to the second level
outcome the individual has subjective estimates of these probabilities ranging from - 1 to +1 which
are called instrumentalities. -1 indicates a belief that second level outcome is certain without the
first level outcome 0 indicates a belief that second level outcome is impossible without first level
outcome 1 indicates a belief that second level outcome is certain with first level outcome

These instrumentalities are helpful in determining the valence of each first-level
outcome The valence of each first-level outcome is the summation of all products
arrived by multiplying its instrumentalities with the related valences of the second
level outcomes.

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3. Expectancy:

It is the probability estimate which joins the individual’s efforts to first level outcome

Expectancy values are always positive ranging from 0 to 1.

4. Motivation:


Motivation is the multiplicative function of the valence of each first- level outcome (V1)
And they believed expectancy (E) that given effort will be followed by a particular first
level outcome, That is M=f(V1*E)

5) Adams equity theory:

In this theory, Equity is defined as the ratio between The individual’s job inputs
(such as effort, skill, experience, education and seniority) to the job re wards (such as
pay or promotion) it is believed that the individuals motivation, performance and
satisfaction will depend on his on his or her subjective evaluation o f his or her
effort/reward ratio and the effort/reward ratio of others in similar situations

6) Skinners behavior modification theory:

The theory developed by researches done by B.F Skinner.

The theory is believed and based on the behavior of the past circumstances which they have learnt
that the certain behaviors associated with pleasant outcomes and certain other behaviors are
associated with unpleasant outcomes.

Example: Obedience to authority leads to praise and disobedience leads to punishment.

The consequences that increase the frequency of a behavior are positive reinforcement (praise or
monitory rewards) or negative enforcement (A manager requiring all subordinates to attend early
morning meetings if the performance falls below a certain desired level of the organization.

Negatives of the above theory proposed: Avoids concern for the inner motivation of the
individual. Skinners behavior modification theory is criticized for two reasons
(i) Overemphasis of extrinsic rewards ignores the fact tha t people are better motivated by intrinsic
rewards.
(ii) The theory is unethical no manager has a right to manipulate and control his employees
behavior life.
Communication

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Communication means Exchange of opinions, facts ideas or emotions by two or more persons.
The sum of all things what one does to create an understanding in the minds of other s.

Is the process of passing information, correct understanding and with right Interpretation from one
person to another.

Importance of communication:

The importance of communication rose from the fact that earlier business was considered only
a technical and formal structure.

But by Hawthorne’s experiments it was realized that every organization requires structure is a
social system involving the interactions of the people working at different levels and proper
communication is required to the goals of the organization, organizations existence from the
birth to continuing

Coordination

Is the orderly synchronization or fitting together of the interdepe ndent efforts of individuals
to attain a common goal

For example in hospital the proper synchronization of the activities of the nurses, doctors, wards
attendants and lab technicians to give a good care to the patient.

Can be considered as an essential part of all managerial functions of planning, organizing,

directing and directing if the manger performs these functions efficiently and expertly coordination
is automatically generated and there remains no need for special coordination.

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Coordination is required at every level of all managerial functions

In planning: performs his function of planning by coordination of the interrelating the plans of various
departments
In organizing: coordination is required in grouping and various activities to subordinates and in creating
departments
In directing: coordination is required to take effect of his particular action will have on other departments
and executives
In controlling: coordination is required manger evaluates operations and checks whether performance is
in conformity with the desired results.

Techniques of coordination:
The following are the important techniques of coordination
1) Rules procedures and policies:

Helps in coordinating the subunits in the performance of their Repetitive activities.

Standard policies, procedures and policies are laid down to cover all possible situations

If the breakdown of the above occurs more rules, regulations are required to be framed to take care
of the breakdown
2) Planning:

Ensures coordinated effort and targets of each department dovetail with the targets of all other
departments.

Example: fixing the targets of the10000 units of additional production and consequently the sales
requires the coordination of the two departments respectively to meet the demands and achieve the
target.
3) Hierarchy:

Is the simplest device of achieving coordination by hierarchy or chain of command By putting

together independent units under one boss some coordination among their activities is achieved.

Sometimes defective because makes individuals dependent upon, passive towards and subordinates
to the leader.
4) Direct contact:

Used to solve the problems created at the lower levels which affects the employees can be
resolved by formal informal contacts to prevent overloading to top executives.
5)Task force:

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Temporary group made up of representatives from the same departments facing problems and
exists as long as the problems lasts and each participant returns to normal tasks once the solution is
reached
6) Committees:

Arise due the fact when certain decisions consistently become permanent.

These groups are labelled committees.

This device greatly eases the rigidity of the hierarchical structure, promotes effective
communication and understanding, of ideas, encourages the acceptance of commitment to policies
and makes implantation more effective.
7) Induction:

Of a new employee is a social setting of his work is also a coordinating mechanism.

The device familiarizes the new employee with organizations rules and regulations dominant
norms and behaviour, values and beliefs and integrates his personal goals with organizational
goals.
8) Indoctrination:

Device commonly used in religious and military organizations is another coordinating device
which develops the desire to work together for a purpose. The major task of a leader being to
build an organization can be succeeded by the indoctrination and other means by converting
the neutral body into a committed body
9) Incentives: providing independent units with an incentive to collaborate such as profit sharing plan is
another mechanism.
10) Liaison departments : evolved to handle transactions and typically occurs between the sales and
production departments.
11)Workflow: is the sequence of steps by which the organization acquires inputs and transforms them
into outputs and exports these to the environment which is largely shaped by the technological, economic
and social considerations and helps them in coordination.

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