CHEN502

Process Dynamics and

Control

Advance Process Control Systems

Binta Zakari Bello

Department of Chemical Engineering ABU, Zaria
Email: bbzakari@abu.edu.ng
Course Content and Intended Learning Outcomes
This course is intended to help the student able to:

I – Concept of Process III – Analysis of the Dynamic

II – Formulation and
Control Behavior
Modeling
Understand and describe the Formulate and Model Static and Develop quantitatively the
Fundamental Concepts of Chemical
Dynamic Behavior of Chemical Analysis of the Dynamic Behavior
Process Control with its
characteristics and the associated Processes Of Chemical Processes
problems

IV – Analysis and Design of VI – Multivariable Processes

V – Analysis and Design of
Feedback Control Systems (MIMO): Introduction to
Advance Control Systems Chemical Plant Control
Understand how to carry out Understand how to carry out
Analysis and Design of Feedback description, Analysis and Design Design of Control Systems for
Control Systems of more Complex Control Systems Multivariable Processes (MIMO):
Introduction to Chemical Plant Control
 Advance Control Systems

 Analysis and Design of Advance Control Systems –

Understand how to carry out description, Analysis
and Design of more Complex Control Systems
 Multivariable Processes (MIMO): Introduction to
Chemical Plant Control - Design of Control Systems for
Multivariable Processes (MIMO)
 The Controlled Process
The Controlled Process (or Plant) is the actual chemical or physical
operation being regulated, such as a reactor or distillation column. It involves
specific inputs (manipulated variables) and outputs (controlled variables).

The Plant Inputs (MV) Outputs (CV)

The chemical or physical Variables adjusted to Quantities we aim to
process under regulation. control the process. maintain at desired values.
Key Process Variables
Effective control hinges on understanding and managing
three types of variables:

Controlled Variables Manipulated Disturbances

(CV) Variables (MV) External factors that affect
Quantities to keep at Variables to control the the process (e.g., changes
desired values (e.g., process (e.g., flow rate, in feed composition or
temperature, pressure). valve position). ambient temperature).
System Characteristics
1 2

Dynamic Behavior Stability

Processes change over time, requiring Ability of the process to return to steady
time-based control strategies. state after disturbances.

3 4

Robustness Dead Time

Tolerance to model errors and unexpected Delay between an input change and its
disturbances. effect on the output.
 Complex Control Systems
 For a process control system to be efficient, it is the necessity to
handle all the challenges posed by the systems characteristics
(dynamic behavior, stability, robustness and dead-time) in real time,
and across all units/unit operations in the process plant
 Synchronizing and balancing different constraints on different
equipment to achieve all process/operational objectives (quality,
economic, safety and environmental factors) as well as specific control
objectives around different equipment, results in the complexity of
control systems - lead to DCS
 Digital Control Systems(DCS), Distributed Control System,
or Automated Control System
 Digital Control Systems(DCS) or Distributed Control System is the brain of
the control system.
 It is the basis for the automation of a manufacturing process and
manages the logic that exist for major unit operations
 A DCS in the past was tailor made for the process, plant or company that
intended to use the structure to control and model it’s process.
 In the process plant, there are sensors and gauges that give and receive
information. They convert this information into a electric signal that is sent
to a computer logic in the control room.
 Digital Control Systems(DCS), Distributed Control System
(DCS), or Automated Control System (ACS)
 The control room has programmed logic that is able to converts the signal
into a pressure, flow rate, concentration, temperature, or level.
 This logic also contains the information that controls the process and takes
the signal compares it with the set point and send it back as a manipulated
variable.
Architecture of a distributed control system
 Beginnings of Advanced Process Control (APC)
 Feedback Control (based on classical control theory) is the basic
building block (Since 1950s) of process control systems

Output Feedback Process Process Quality

Setpoint Process Measurement
Controller Inputs Outputs

Updated Feedback
Observer Information
Process State

12
 Advanced Process Control (APC)
 Advance Process Control (APC, also DCS/ACS) is based on
modern control theory
 First usage of APC was in guidance and control of
aircraft/satellites – due to their complexity, PID control was
inadequate.
 APC or Automatic control emerged as an interdisciplinary
field.
 PID control still dominant in process industries
 Digital computer control was required for analysis of the
complex differential equations.
13
Feature Classical Control theory Modern Control theory
Domain Frequency domain Time domain

Representation Transfer Functions State-space Equations

System Simpler, SISO systems Complex, MIMO
Simpler, SISO systems Complex, MIMO systems
Complexity systems
Computational
Lower Higher
complexity
More intuitive for simpler systems, and
intuitiveness effective for stability analysis and controller Less intuitive for some applications
design
Parameter
PID tuning Optimization models
adjustment
Uses differential equations and Laplace Employs state variables, input variables, and
Modeling transforms to represent system input- output variables to describe the system's internal
output relationships. dynamics.
Requires more computational resources, can be
Can be challenging for complex, high-order,
Weakness less intuitive for some applications, and may have
or multi-variable systems. 14
real-time implementation challenges.
 Model Predictive Control (MPC)
 because parameter monitoring and adjustment is based on optimization
criteria/ optimization model, ACS are called Model-Based or Model
Predictive control (MPC) systems
 MPC is currently the most widely used multivariable control algorithm in
the chemical process industries
 Makes explicit use of process models
 Control actions are obtained from on-line optimization (QP)
 Handles process variable constraints
 Unifies treatment of load, set-point changes
 Accurately represent the plant over the full operating region
 Many commercial packages based on MPC (eg MATLAB/Simulink MPC
Toolbox, Honeywell's OnRamp, and AspenTech's DMCplus)
15
 Why Advanced Control ?
Conventional approach Advanced Process control
 ƒMulti-loop PID: difficult to  ƒComplex multi-variable interactions
tune  ƒOperating constraints
 ƒAd-hoc constraint
–ƒSafety limits
handling using logic
programming –ƒInput saturation constraints
(Programmable Logic –ƒProduct quality constraints
Controllers, PLCs): lack of ƒControl over wide operating range
coordination – ƒProcess nonlinearities
 ƒNonlinearity handling by
–ƒChanging process parameters /
gain scheduling
conditions
16
 Key Features: PID vs. APC
Conventional PID APC
Control Strategy Feedback based on error Model-based predictive control
Complexity Simple, easy to implement Complex, require modeling
Single-input, single-output (SISO) – Multiple-input, multiple out-put (MIMO) - Manages
Variables
handles single-variable at a time systems with multiple interacting inputs and outputs
Predicts future behavior by using mathematical model
Prediction No prediction of future behavior to predict future system behavior and optimize control
actions.
Self-adaptive - Adjusts control parameters
Adaptation Fixed parameters, manual tuning automatically for non-linear or varying operational
conditions
Optimizes performance in real-time, handles varying
Optimization No real-time optimization
constraints like safety and operational limits
Simple systems (single points on a Complex industrial processes with multiple variables
Use case
unit operations) interact (plant-wide control framework)
Requires model development and advanced software
Implementation Easy (for linear systems)
system
17
Plant Wide Control Framework of
Process Control

18
 Challenges of Conventional Control Structure
(Multi-loop PID Control)
 Industrial Processes: multivariable (multiple inputs
influence same output) and exhibit strong interaction
among the variables
 Conventional Control scheme: Multiple Single
Input Single Output PID controllers used for controlling
plant (Multi-Loop Control)
 Consequences: Loop Interactions
–ƒLack of coordination between different PID loops
– ƒNeighboring PID loops can co-operate with
– each other or end up opposing / disturbing each
other 19
Hierarchy of control
system functions
The choice depends on
process complexity,
optimization needs,
and required precision.
 Conventional PID Control Strategy
Feedback control strategy works by
studying the downstream data and
then altering the upstream process.
The actions executed are
reactive. For example, if a feed's
temperature is detected to be lower
than desired, then steam can be
used to preheat the feed.

The PID controller calculates the control signal as a sum of its three terms: Proportional, Integral,
and Derivative. This algorithm continuously adjusts the system's input to minimize error over time.

The PID continuously adjusts output based on the error between the desired set-point and actual
system output, they are
• effective in linear, time-invariant systems, ideal for temperature, pressure, or liquid level
regulation
• Ideal for straightforward applications, offering a balance between simplicity and performance.
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 Components of PID Control
Proportional (P) Integral (I) Derivative (D)
Reacts to current error; larger error Accumulates past errors to eliminate Predicts future error based on rate
means stronger response. Aims to steady-state error. Can introduce lag of change. Provides damping,
reduce error quickly, but can cause and instability if not tuned carefully. reducing overshoot and improving
steady-state errors or overshoot. stability.

Control Output = P + I + D
𝟏 𝒕 𝒅𝒆(𝒕)
U(t) = K 𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒆 𝝉 𝒅𝝉 + 𝑻𝒅 =P+I+D
𝑻𝒊 𝒅𝒕

where u is the controller output, and e is the error, i.e. the difference between the reference value r (the set
point) and process output y (the measured variable). The control action is thus composed of three terms, one
part (P) is proportional to the error, another (I) is proportional to the integral of the error, and a third (D) is
proportional to the derivative of the error.
On-line Optimization - how advanced models enhance process control
(beyond traditional feedback systems)
 Shifts in operational priorities
Example: FCC Unit operated under
simultaneous
ƒ- Maximization of Gasoline /LPG production
ƒ- Maximization of ATF production
ƒ- Maximization of profits
ƒ- Minimization of energy consumption
„
 Changes in operating conditions
ƒ- Changes in feed quality (refinery: change in
crude blend)
ƒ- Changes in operating parameters
ƒ- Catalyst degradation
 Provides significant benefits for dynamic, nonlinear, and ƒ- Heat-exchanger fouling
constrained processes. ƒ- Changes in separation efficiency
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 Key Features & Benefits of APC
Model Predictive Control (MPC) Improved Yield & Capacity
Uses a mathematical model to predict future system Enhances product output and plant operational
behavior and optimize control actions. limits.

Multivariable Control Better Quality & Consistency

Manages systems with multiple interacting inputs Ensures more uniform and higher-grade products.
and outputs (MIMO), unlike single-variable PID.

Optimization & Constraints Reduced Energy & Waste

Optimizes processes in real-time, handling Minimizes consumption and environmental
constraints like safety and operational limits. emissions.

Adaptive Control Enhanced Safety & Responsiveness

Adjusts control parameters automatically for non- Boosts operational safety and system agility.
linear or varying operational conditions.
 Models

Qualitative Mathematical Statistical

Qualitative Qualitative
Transfer Process Fuzzy Logic Black Box Mechanistic Probabilistic Correlation
Functions Descriptions (Empirical)

Lumped Distributed
Linear Non-linear Parameter Parameter
(ODEs) (PDEs)

Transfer Neural
Time Series Time Series Linear Non-Linear Linear Non-Linear
Functions Networks

Classification of Model Types for Process Monitoring and Control 25

 Process Models for Monitoring and Control
Models are crucial for modern control especially for APC, to enable prediction of process
behavior under changing conditions, reducing the need for real experimentation and
facilitating cost-effective analysis.

1 Mechanistic Models (Mathematical) 2 Black Box Models (Mathematical)

From physics and chemistry, using differential equations for They simply describe the functional relationships between
dynamic behavior. ODEs for behavior in one dimension, system inputs and system outputs without physical
normally time, e.g. the level of liquid in a tank. PDEs for significance. They are cost-effective and good representing
behavior with dependence on time and spatial locations, e.g. some trends in
the temperature profile of liquid in a tank that is not well mixed process behavior.

3 Qualitative Models
For modeling processes not amenable to mathematical 4 Statistical Models
description, using rule-based or fuzzy logic. They are 'rule- Characterize processes using probability and correlation,
based' models that use 'IF-THEN-ELSE‘ constructs to describe important for higher-level decision-making. Widely and
process behavior. Qualitative Transfer Functions (QTFs) interchangeable use in the development of deterministic as
describe relationship between an input and an output variable, well as stochastic digital control algorithms.
- built up of smaller sub-systems and connected together
 Models Usage for Process Control
Chemical engineers use detailed models for process design and troubleshooting. Traditional
process control often relies on empirical step-change response models rather than these
fundamental engineering models. This causes 2 issues:
Steady State Limitations Approximations of Reality
Most process models are steady-state, not dynamic. Models are approximations, often with 10%
Developing dynamic models is computationally intensive error. Relying solely on them for control would
and rarely worth the effort, except for some reactor kinetics. lead to unsafe and unprofitable operations.

Due to the inherent limitations of these design models, precise process control is impossible
without measuring and correcting the thermodynamic state. Feedback control provides the
necessary precision that models alone cannot achieve.

This highlights why feedback, which reacts to actual measured conditions, is crucial for
maintaining desired process outcomes.

This also highlight why fundamental chemical engineering models are required to directly
control plant operations
 Example:
Multi-component Distillation Column Design and Control
An engineer uses her process simulation software to predict that to operate
her multi-component distillation column with a feed rate of 10,000 kg/hr, the
reboiler will require 806 kW of steam for heating.

1. Can she just measure the flow of steam, multiply it by its enthalpy of
vaporization, and control that steam to give us 806 kW of heat?
2. A common control strategy is to use a feedback control mechanism to
control the temperature at the bottom tray (as a good proxy for bottoms
composition) Why is that an acceptable solution?
3. Propose a Feedforward control mechanism and explain why it is a
better control strategy for the column.
 Solution:
Multi-component Distillation Column Design and Control
1. The column will eventually need about 806 kW of heating, but when?
 At start-up, when the column is cold and the feed is just starting?
 30 minutes later?
 Will steady state conditions be maintained such that the same heating will
always be required?
 This highlights the need for control
The dynamic model required to truly capture all of the possible dynamics of
the distillation column would be a massive computational task, and would
require a set of mass, heat and momentum transfer parameters that no
engineer will ever have from such a simulation.
 Solution:
Multi-component Distillation Column Design and Control
2. Why Feedback control is a viable solution

The process simulator uses multiple approximations, linearizations and

correlations to be able to predict even the steady state operation of a multi-
component distillation, which still requires the solution of a system of dozens
of simultaneous differential equations.
• Between the uncertainties about thermodynamic models, tray efficiencies,
and feed composition variability, it’s even a minor technical miracle that
results within 10% error are even achievable. i.e with the estimate of 886
kW, the actual heat needed to achieve the column objectives is either 726
kW or 886 kW (10% difference).
• With the feedback control, measuring and controlling that bottom tray
temperature, will allow the temperature to be maintained closer to design
value and lead more precise composition control that the fog of model
calculations will never be able to achieve.
 Solution:
Multi-component Distillation Column Design and Control

3. Enhancing Feedback Control with Feedforward (Figure: MC-DC1 -

Multi-component Distillation Column 1)

With feedforward control a process model is used to assist in the

performance of a feedback controller. Two elements are essential for it:
i. A measured part of the thermodynamic state which, if changed, will
alter a controlled objective. This is referred to as a measured
Disturbance Variable
ii. A process model that links changes to the disturbance variable
to changes to the controlled objective, i.e. the process variable
in a feedback control loop.
Given that it requires 806 kW
when operating at a feedrate of
10,000 kg/hr – Figure: MC-DC1
- the control strategy using a
feedback controller, TC-C1B, to
maintain a constant
temperature on the bottom tray
(TT-C1B) by manipulating the
reboiler steam flowrate,
controlled with subordinate
controller FC-E2.
- that knowledge can be used to
enhance the feedback
controller TC-C1B via dividing
the modeled heat load by the
flowrate to determine the
approximate reboiler heat
required per unit feed Figure: MC-DC1
 Enhancing Feedback Control with Feedforward
The reboiler heat required per unit feed is
𝟖𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑾 𝟖𝟎𝟔 𝒌𝑱/𝒔
= = 𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝑱/𝒌𝒈𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒉𝒓 𝟐. 𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝒈/𝒔

The amount of heat delivered by the steam is readily found in a steam table (for
100 psig steam, the heat of vaporization is 1523 kJ/kgsteam). Dividing the two
𝒌𝑱
𝟐𝟗𝟎 𝒌𝒈𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒌𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎
= 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟏 𝒌𝒈𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒅
𝒌𝑱
𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟑 𝒌𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎

knowing the feedrate entering the column (FT-C1F), we can multiply that rate by our model
ratio from Figure MC-DC1, to determine our feedforward flowrate of steam needed by the
reboiler:
 𝒌𝒈𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎
𝑬𝟐 𝒔𝒕𝒆𝒂𝒎𝒇𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟗𝟏 𝒌𝒈𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒅 ∗ (𝑭𝑻 − 𝑪𝟏𝑭)

To use that feedforward signal, we simply add it to the feedback signal generated by
the bottoms tray temperature controller, TC-C1B, before sending it as the remote
setpoint (RSP) to the steam flow controller, i.e.:

FC-E2.RSP = (E2 steam)ff + TC-C1B.Output

To achieve this in practice, we use a feature found in essentially all feedback
control loops (in PLCs (Programmable Logic controllers), DCSs (Distributed
Control Systems), and independent controllers) called a Bias.
 A bias signal is an input added to the normal output of a feedback
controller without otherwise affecting the action of the controller.
 Figure MC-DC1a shows the resulting changes to the
P&ID from Figure MC-DC1.
 The Model Calculation block is performing the
calculation in the equation that gave “feedforward
flowrate of steam needed”.
 This will greatly assist in maintaining the bottom tray
temperature when the feed flowrate changes.
Whenever the feed flowrate changes, the feedforward
signal will call for the necessary change in the E-2
steam flow before that change in feed flow even
begins to affect the bottom tray temperature.
 That will result in faster and steadier feedback
control, because the feedback controller will need
only contribute a small amount of the overall control
action.
 The feedforward model-driven signal will have done
most of the heavy lifting before the feedback
controller sees a temperature deviation to react to. Figure MC-DC1a
This can also be
pictured in a Function
Block Diagram (FBD)
for Control Design –
Figure MC-DC1b,
FBD of this control
scheme with
feedforward model
enhancement.

Figure MC-DC1b
 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MultiVariable) Control Systems

f1(s)
G1(s)

f2(s) + y(s)
G2(s) +
. +
.
.
fn(s)
Gn(s)

Figure: Block diagram of a process with

multiple inputs and single output
Multiple Inputs Single Output Process – An Example

SHOWER - A typical example of a coupled system is a shower. coupling refers to

- The system has two inputs: flow of hot and cold water, the interaction or
and two outputs, total flow and temperature interdependence
between different
- Changing either of the flows will change the total flow as parts of a control
well as the temperature system, where the
- This implies there is “strong” coupling between the two input behavior of one
variable or
signals and the two output signals controlled element
- The control of flow and temperature in a shower can be influences another,
considerably simplified by using a thermostat mixer often in a multi-
variable system.
- This will reduce the coupling and make it into multiple input,
single output which is easier to make the control
 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output Control (Multi Variable) Systems
Consider the heated tank in Figure MIMO-1.
The flow and temperature of the feed are the
disturbances of the process.
- The level is controlled by the outlet valve.
- The temperature in the tank is controlled by the
steam flow through the heating coil.
- A change in feed temperature Ti or the
temperature setpoint Tr will lead to change in the
flow of steam, but this will not influence the level
in the tank.
- A change in the feed flowrate Fi or the level
setpoint Lr will change the output flowrate F and
thus the content in the tank.
- This will also influence the temperature controller
that has to adjust the steam flow.
- Thus, there is a coupling between the level
control and the temperature control, but there is
no coupling from the temperature loop to the Figure MIMO-1: Level and temperature control in a tank
level loop.
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (Multi Variable)
Consider the evaporator in Figure MIMO-2.
Control Systems - The temperature control loop will change the
steam flow to the coil.
- This will influence both the produced steam
and the level, L.
- In the same way a change in the steam out
flow will change both the level, L and the
temperature, T.
- This will influence both the produced steam
and the level.
- A change in the output flow, F will change
both the level, L and the temperature, T.
Three aspects of coupled systems:
• How to judge if the coupling in the process
will cause problems in the control of the
process or not
• How to determine the pairing of the inputs
Figure MIMO-2: Level and temperature control in an evaporator and outputs in order to avoid the coupling
• How to eliminate the coupling in the process
 Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (Multi Variable) Control Systems
Figure MIMO-3 shows an example of a strongly coupled system, with two input signals and two output
signals. If Gij is the transfer function from input j to output i and introducing the vector notations for the
Laplace transforms of the outputs and inputs

G(s) is called the transfer function matrix of the system. This

representation can be generalized to more inputs and outputs.
Another way of describing a multivariable system is by using the
state space model

Figure MIMO-3: Level and temperature control in an

evaporator
 Inferential Control

Inferential Control is a control strategy used when a measurement of the

primary variable is not available.
• It is similar to a cascade control strategy and can suppress
disturbances detected by the secondary measurement.
• An inferential model is one that provides a quality for which an analyzer
is not available.
• This type of model uses readily available physical measurements such
as temperatures, pressures, and flow rates to infer a quality such as
kerosine flash point.
 Soft sensing
 Soft sensing in process control refers to the use of software-based
models to estimate the value of a process variable that is difficult or
expensive to measure directly, using readily available process
measurements.
 These "soft sensors" leverage algorithms to process multiple sensor
inputs and predict a desired output, effectively acting as virtual
sensors. They are particularly useful in industrial settings where real-
time estimation of key process variables is crucial for monitoring,
control, and optimization.

43
 Soft sensing
Soft Sensors Work through the following steps:
 Data Acquisition: Soft sensors rely on data from existing hardware sensors
that measure process variables like temperature, pressure, flow rates, etc.
 Model Development: creating a mathematical model, (often based on
techniques like fuzzy logic, neural networks, or statistical methods), to correlate
the measured variables with the target (hard-to-measure) variable.
 Real-Time Estimation: of the desired variable in real-time, using the model
developed based on the available sensor readings (data acquired).
 Integration with Control Systems: The estimated values from the soft
sensor can then be integrated into the process control system to adjust process
parameters and maintain desired operating conditions
44
 Benefits of Soft Sensors
 Reduced Costs:
Soft sensors can eliminate the need for expensive or specialized
hardware sensors
 Improved Process Understanding:
By providing estimates of difficult-to-measure variables, soft sensors
can offer valuable insights into process behavior
 Enhanced Control and Optimization:
Soft sensors enable more precise control of processes, leading to
improved product quality, increased efficiency, and reduced waste
 Fault Detection and Diagnosis:
Soft sensors can be used to detect anomalies and faults in the process
by monitoring the estimated values and identifying deviations from
expected behavior 45
 Examples of Soft sensors Applications
 Chemical and Petrochemical Industries: Estimating product
quality, such as viscosity or composition.
 Food Processing: Monitoring ingredient ratios or product
characteristics.
 Power Plants: Predicting steam quality or turbine efficiency.
 Water Treatment: Estimating pollutant levels or water quality
parameters.
 Manufacturing: Optimizing cutting parameters in machining
processes or estimating surface roughness.

46
 Types of Soft Sensors
 Data-Driven (Black-Box) Models:
These models are based solely on historical process data and are useful when
limited process knowledge is available.
 First-Principles (White-Box) Models:
These models are based on fundamental laws of physics and chemistry and are
useful when process understanding is strong.
 Gray-Box Models:
combine data-driven and first-principles approaches to leverage the strengths of
both.
in essence, soft sensors are a powerful tool for enhancing process control by
providing a cost-effective and reliable way to estimate difficult-to-measure variables,
ultimately leading to improved process efficiency and product quality.
47
 Identification of Control Process Objectives
and Constraints in Multivariable Systems

Process constraints come from the three categories: operational,

safety, and environmental limitations.
• Operational constraints refer to the limits of the equipment used in
the process. For instance, a liquid storage tank can only hold a
certain volume.
• Safety constraints describe the limits when the people or the
equipment may be in danger. An example would be a pressure
limitation on a reactor, which if exceeded, could result in an
explosion.
• Environmental constraints limit how the process can affect the
environment
 Recommended Reading
1. Chemical Process Control: An Introduction to Theory and Practice by George Stephanopoulos. Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood
Cliffs, N.J. USA, 1984. Reproduced in New Delhi, India, 1998.
2. Chemical Engineering Volume Three Second Edition by J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson. Pergamon Press Ltd., Headington
Hill Hall, Oxford OX3 0BW, England, 1979 or later version. Area of Concentration: The Controller (pp. 193- 203).
3. Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook. Sixth Edition by Robert H. Perry and Don Green. McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, USA, 1984 or later version. Areas of Concentration: Fundamentals of Automatic Control (pp. 22.1 -22.32) ;
Control System Analysis (pp. 22.126 – 22-131).
4. D.E. Seborg, T.F. Edgar, E.A. Mellichamp and F.J. Doyle (2011). Process Dynamics and Control, 2nd and 3rd Edition, John
Willey and Sons, New York, USA.
5. Edgar T.F., Himmelblau D.M., and Lasdon D.S. (2001). Optimisation of Chemical Processes. Published by McGraw Hill.
6. Beard R.W. and McLain T.W. (2016). Introduction to Feedback Control, Brigham Young University.
7. Ogunnaike, B.A., & Ray, W.H. Process Dynamics, Modeling, and Control. Oxford University Press.