Chapter 1

Introduction

Aristotle's Poetics is a seminal work in understanding literature and drama. The book
laid down fundamental principles that have since guided the entire concept of tragedy for
centuries. The work was written in the 4th century BCE and systematically analyzes what
makes a tragedy effective through the elements involved: plot and character. Despite its
historical context, Poetics remains an essential reference for scholars and practitioners in
drama, for it contains timeless insights on the art of storytelling.

1.1 Purpose of the Project

The purpose of this project, titled "Foundations of Drama: Analyzing Aristotle’s Poetics,"
is to critically engage with Aristotle’s ideas by exploring their relevance to modern
storytelling. Rather than offering a mere summary of Poetics, this project aims to provide a
thoughtful review that connects Aristotle’s concepts with examples from both classic and
contemporary films and literature. The focus will be on evaluating the strengths and
limitations of Poetics in light of current narrative practices, ultimately providing an
informed opinion on the enduring influence of Aristotle’s theories.

1.2 Key Concepts Explored

"Foundations of Drama: Analysing Aristotle's Poetics" is a project to critically engage with
Aristotle's ideas and explore their relevance in modern storytelling.
Instead of merely outlining the book Poetics, the aim of this project is to try and provide a
critical review drawing examples from classic and modern movies and literature that refer
to Aristotle's ideas. Therefore, it is pertinent to focus on evaluating the strengths and
limitations of Poetics in view of current narrative practices in order to provide an educated
opinion of the enduring influence of Aristotle's theories. We will use this space to go into a
little more depth about some of those that have been represented by Aristotle in his
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Poetics—mimesis, the tragic hero, catharsis, and structure. We shall discourse on all these
not merely as concerns an ancient Greek tragedy but in terms of how these four elements
are relevant to a modern story.

1.3 Methodology and Approach

For example, it will be studied how the notion of mimesis or imitation is relevant to modern
dramas that mirror and explain human experience. The tragic hero will be done through
characters in recent films and literature who portray characteristics of hamartia which will
then bring them to their tragic end. This project takes the approach of showing through
concrete examples from movies and books how Aristotle's principles have been altered,
questioned, or maintained in modern narratives. This analysis continues further to critically
assess the effectiveness of these principles when expanded to different genres and different
media forms far outside the traditional limits of only tragedy. My critique will strive to find
the balance to provide a historical perspective on the importance of Poetics with reference
to its practical application in contemporary storytelling.

1.4 Contributions to Ongoing Discussions

By giving an opinionated critique of Aristotle's Poetics, this project contributes to the larger
scope discussing the relevance of classical theories in modern narrative art. It is the
contention of the present study that, while Poetics is an invaluable resource that enables one
to acquire some fundamental knowledge about drama, its real significance lies in the
exercise of the principles of critical interaction and in applying those principles with a view
of modern-day requirements. This essay will seek to demonstrate that Aristotle's reflections
are still important for understanding the mechanisms of effective narration, reevaluating
concepts with each new writer to adjust them to changing cultural and artistic conditions.

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Chapter 2
Tragedy

Aristotle's Poetics offers a foundational framework for understanding tragedy as a

dramatic art form. He defines tragedy as an imitation of a serious, complete action
designed to evoke emotions of pity and fear, ultimately leading to catharsis, or emotional
cleansing. This cathartic effect is central to tragedy, as it provides the audience with a
profound emotional experience that purges intense feelings and offers a sense of emotional
release.

Tragedy, according to Aristotle, engages both the emotions and the intellect of the
audience. The carefully structured elements of a tragedy guide viewers through a
psychological journey, prompting reflection on human experiences and moral dilemmas.
Aristotle’s analysis remains relevant for both classical and modern storytelling, providing
valuable insights into how narratives can be crafted to maximize emotional and
intellectual impact.

2.1 Key Elements of Tragedy

Aristotle identifies six essential elements of tragedy: Plot, Character, Thought, Diction,
Song, and Spectacle. Among these, Plot is considered the most crucial, serving as the 'soul'
of the tragedy. The plot is a sequence of events arranged in a cause-and-effect chain that
leads to a climax and resolution. A strong plot ensures that the narrative flows logically,
keeping the audience engaged and emotionally invested.

Character is the second most important element, bringing the plot to life through
individuals whose actions and decisions drive the story forward. Characters must be
 Chapter 2: Tragedy

realistic and consistent, with actions that reveal their moral qualities and inner conflicts.
The other elements—Thought, Diction, Song, and Spectacle—each contribute to the
overall impact of the tragedy, enhancing the audience's emotional and intellectual
engagement with the narrative. These elements work together to create a cohesive and
compelling story that resonates with audiences on multiple levels.

2.2 Application and Examples of Key Elements

2.2.1 Plot
The plot is the backbone of a tragedy, providing the structure that supports all other
elements. Aristotle emphasizes that a coherent plot, where events are causally connected, is
essential for engaging the audience. A well-constructed plot ensures that the story flows
logically and maintains the audience's emotional investment.
In modern storytelling, a strong plot is crucial. For example, the movie The Godfather
demonstrates how a plot can drive both the emotional and moral development of characters.
The narrative is carefully crafted with dramatic reversals and recognitions, reflecting
Aristotle's principles. Similarly, television series like Breaking Bad use intricate plot
structures to build tension and keep viewers engaged throughout the series.

2.2.2 Character
Character is the second most important element in tragedy. Aristotle argues that characters
must be consistent, true to life, and appropriate to their roles. They should exhibit a moral
purpose, with actions reflecting their motivations and ethical choices, driving the plot
forward.
In contemporary storytelling, character development remains vital. Characters should be
well-rounded, showing believable growth that is integral to the narrative. In To Kill a
Mockingbird, for example, the characters’ moral complexities are revealed through their
actions, aligning with Aristotle's views on character development. Similarly, films like
Schindler's List portray characters with depth, reflecting true human nature and moral
dilemmas, enhancing the audience's connection to the story.

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 Chapter 2: Tragedy

2.2.3 Thought
Thought in tragedy refers to the themes, arguments, and ideas that emerge from the
characters' dialogue and actions. It helps convey the narrative’s intellectual and ethical
dimensions, adding depth to the story.
Modern cinema often uses dialogue to explore complex themes. In A Few Good Men,
courtroom dialogues highlight issues of justice, duty, and moral integrity, enhancing the
narrative's dramatic impact. Similarly, novels like 1984 by George Orwell use characters'
reflections to examine societal themes, making thought a crucial element in engaging the
audience intellectually.

2.2.4 Diction and Song

Diction involves the choice of words and expression, while song pertains to rhythm and
musicality in a play. Together, they enhance the narrative's emotional and aesthetic qualities.
In musicals and poetic dramas, diction and song vividly convey emotions and themes. Les
Misérables uses song to deepen the emotional impact, with lyrics that reflect the characters’
struggles. Contemporary films like La La Land use songs to express characters' emotions,
allowing audiences to connect deeply with their experiences. Carefully chosen diction also
helps establish tone and authenticity in various genres.

2.2.5 Spectacle
Spectacle involves the visual elements of a tragedy, such as set design, costumes, and
effects. Though considered least important by Aristotle, spectacle enhances the story's
emotional appeal by creating a visually engaging experience.

In modern films, spectacle creates immersive experiences. Avatar, for instance, uses visual
effects to make the world of Pandora feel real and captivating. Movies like Inception and

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 Chapter 2: Tragedy

The Matrix also use special effects to create compelling visual narratives, demonstrating
how spectacle can enhance storytelling and convey complex themes.

Aristotle's insights on tragedy in Poetics continue to shape modern storytelling. By

understanding the importance of plot, character, thought, diction, song, and spectacle,
creators can craft narratives that are engaging, emotionally resonant, and intellectually
stimulating. The timeless principles laid out by Aristotle remain relevant across various
storytelling forms, from stage to screen.

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Chapter 3
Origin of Poetry

The passage is an excerpt from Aristotle's "Poetics," a seminal work in literary

theory and criticism. In this text, Aristotle explores the origins and nature of poetry, tracing
its development from the innate human instincts of imitation and rhythm. He argues that
humans are naturally inclined to imitate, a trait that differentiates them from other animals
and forms the basis for learning and artistic creation. Aristotle also discusses how the
pleasure derived from imitation and learning drives people's enjoyment of poetry and art
Aristotle further distinguishes between epic poetry and tragedy, noting their similarities and
differences in form, structure, and scope. While both genres share common elements,
tragedy is more constrained in time and focuses on a single, unified action, whereas epic
poetry is more expansive in its narrative approach.

3.1 Key Points and Analysis

3.1.1 Imitation as a Fundamental Human Instinct:
Aristotle emphasizes that humans are naturally inclined to imitate. From childhood, we learn
by mimicking others, which distinguishes us from other animals. This instinct is also the
foundation of art, where even unpleasant things can be enjoyed when well-represented.

3.1.2 The Role of Harmony and Rhythm:

Besides imitation, humans have an inherent sense of rhythm and harmony. These elements
combined with imitation led to the creation of poetry and, eventually, drama. This suggests
that artistic expression is deeply rooted in our nature.
 Chapter 3: Imitation

3.1.3 Evolution of Art Forms:

Poetry and drama evolved from simple forms into more complex ones. Tragedy developed
from choral songs, while comedy started with humorous imitations. Over time, these art
forms became more sophisticated, with innovations like multiple actors, dialogue, and
stagecraft.

3.1.4 Divergence of Artistic Expression:

As poetry evolved, it split into different types based on the temperament of the poets.
Serious poets focused on noble themes, while others created satirical works. This highlights
the diversity in artistic expression and the importance of personal style in art.

3.1.5 Comedy as a Reflection of Human Flaws:

Comedy imitates characters of a lower type, focusing on flaws that are not painful but
amusing. This suggests that humor often arises from imperfections, which can be a way to
reflect on human nature without causing harm.

3.2 Real Life Implications

3.2.1 Learning and Growth:

Just as Aristotle explains that imitation is crucial for learning, in real life, we often learn
new skills, behaviors, and knowledge by observing and mimicking others. For example, a
child learns to speak by imitating their parents. Similarly, in professional settings,
employees learn by observing their mentors.

3.2.2 Art as a Tool for Reflection:

The idea that even unpleasant things can be appreciated when well-imitated in art can be
seen in how movies, literature, and visual art address challenging topics like war, poverty,
or death. These representations allow us to reflect on difficult issues in a controlled and
meaningful way.

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 Chapter 3: Imitation

3.2.3 The Evolution of Ideas and Projects:

The gradual development of poetry and drama from simple to complex forms mirrors how
projects or ideas in real life evolve over time. For instance, a startup may begin with a
simple idea and gradually develop into a complex business with multiple products and
services.

3.2.4 Diverse Expression in Creativity:

The divergence of poetry into serious and satirical forms can be related to how people
express themselves differently based on their personalities and perspectives. In a
workplace, for example, some may approach problem-solving with a serious, analytical
mindset, while others might use humor and creativity.

3.2.5 Humor as a Coping Mechanism:

The concept of comedy as an imitation of human flaws reflects how humor is often used in
real life to cope with difficulties. For instance, comedians frequently address social and
personal issues in a way that makes audiences laugh, helping them deal with these topics
in a less painful manner.

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Chapter 4
Imitation

Aristotle’s Poetics is a foundational text that has shaped the understanding of literary
theory and criticism for centuries. In the opening chapter, Aristotle begins by setting the
stage for his exploration of poetry, which he regards as a significant and complex art form.
He defines poetry in broad terms, encompassing various genres such as epic poetry, tragedy,
comedy, and dithyrambic poetry. For Aristotle, the unifying characteristic of these diverse
forms is their reliance on imitation (mimesis), which is the central concept around which his
analysis revolves.
Aristotle asserts that imitation is a natural human instinct, evident from childhood, where
individuals learn and find pleasure in imitating others. This instinct, he argues, is the basis
of all forms of art. In poetry, this imitation manifests through the representation of human
actions, life, and emotions, conveyed through different artistic mediums. Poetry, in this
sense, is not merely a reflection of reality but a creative act that can represent life in various
forms—idealized, exaggerated, or realistic.

4.1 The Nature of Imitation

Aristotle introduces three core aspects that distinguish the various forms of poetry: the
medium of imitation, the objects of imitation, and the manner of imitation. Understanding
these distinctions is crucial for comprehending the differences between genres like epic
poetry and tragedy, or tragedy and comedy.

4.1.1 Medium of Imitation

The medium refers to the tools or elements through which the imitation is expressed. In
the context of poetry, this typically involves language, but it can also include rhythm,
harmony, and even visual elements in some cases. For example, in epic poetry, the
 Chapter 4: Imitation

medium is primarily narrative language, often embellished with meter and rhythm, which
allows the poet to recount grand and complex stories.
Aristotle points out that each form of poetry employs its medium differently. For instance,
tragedy and comedy both uses spoken language, but they differ in their use of rhythm and
harmony. Tragedy often incorporates lyrical passages, which blend spoken language with
musical elements, thereby enhancing the emotional impact. Comedy, while also using
language, tends to focus more on the rhythmic timing of dialogue to achieve humor. The
choice of medium, therefore, is not arbitrary but deeply connected to the effect the poet
wishes to achieve.

4.1.2 Objects of Imitation

The objects of imitation in poetry, according to Aristotle, are the actions, emotions, and
experiences of human beings. However, these objects can be represented in different ways,
depending on the genre. Aristotle categorizes these representations into three main types:
imitations that depict people as better than they are in real life, those that show them as
worse, and those that present them as they are.
In tragedy, the objects of imitation are often noble and heroic actions, portraying
characters who are better or greater than ordinary people. This elevation serves to evoke a
sense of awe and to engage the audience in a moral and emotional experience that
transcends everyday life. Tragedy aims to stir profound emotions, particularly pity and
fear, which culminate in the cathartic effect—a key concept that Aristotle elaborates on
later in his work.

4.1.3 Manner of Imitation

The manner of imitation refers to how the poet chooses to present the imitated actions,
whether through direct representation, narration, or a combination of both. Aristotle
explains that poets have different approaches to imitation based on their chosen genre. For
instance, epic poetry primarily uses narration, where the poet recounts the actions and
events in a story-like manner, often with the poet’s own voice guiding the narrative.
Aristotle also notes that within these forms, there can be variations in the manner of
imitation. For example, a tragedy might include a chorus that comments on the action,
blending narration with direct representation. Similarly, a comedy might incorporate

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 Chapter 4: Imitation

asides or soliloquies, where characters break the fourth wall to speak directly to the
audience. These choices in the manner of imitation influence how the audience perceives
and reacts to the poetic work.

4.2 Real Life Implications

4.2.1 Learning and Growth:
Aristotle’s emphasis on imitation as a key component of learning can be applied to various
aspects of life. In education, for example, students often learn new concepts by observing
and mimicking their teachers. In professional development, employees enhance their skills
by modeling the behaviors and strategies of successful colleagues. This process of learning
through imitation is fundamental to human development and is reflected in many aspects of
daily life.

4.2.2 Art as a Tool for Reflection:

The idea that art can transform even unpleasant realities into something beautiful and
meaningful is a powerful reminder of art's role in society. Films, literature, and visual arts
often tackle difficult subjects, such as injustice, suffering, and conflict, offering audiences a
way to engage with these issues on a deeper level. By presenting these topics through the
lens of art, creators allow viewers to explore complex emotions and ideas in a way that is
both safe and thought-provoking.

4.2.3 The Evolution of Ideas and Projects:

The gradual development of poetry and drama mirrors the evolution of ideas and projects in
various fields. Whether in business, science, or technology, innovative ideas often start
small and simple, gradually growing more complex as they are refined and developed. This
process of evolution is essential to progress, as it allows for continuous improvement and
adaptation to changing circumstances.

Aristotle establishes a comprehensive framework for understanding poetry as an art form

grounded in imitation, the essence of all poetic genres. By categorizing poetry according

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 Chapter 4: Imitation

to the medium, objects, and manner of imitation, he provides a systematic approach to

distinguish between genres such as tragedy, comedy, and epic poetry. This methodical
analysis not only highlights the unique qualities of each form but also lays the foundation
for grasping the principles behind successful poetic expression. Aristotle's insights pave
the way for a deeper exploration of specific genres, particularly tragedy, which he views
as the most profound form of poetic imitation.

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Chapter 5
Epic Poetry

Aristotle's Poetics provides a detailed examination of epic poetry, distinguishing it

from tragedy while acknowledging its shared characteristics. Epic poetry is defined as a
narrative form that is grand in scope, typically composed in a dignified style, and involves
the recounting of heroic deeds and events. Unlike tragedy, which is confined to a specific
timeframe and space, epic poetry can span a vast duration and encompass a wide array of
locations. The extended nature of epic poetry allows for a more comprehensive
exploration of its themes and characters, providing the audience with a rich, immersive
experience.

The epic, according to Aristotle, serves not only to entertain but also to educate and inspire
by illustrating moral virtues through its protagonists. The elevated style and serious
subject matter of epic poetry contribute to its ability to convey complex ideas and
emotions, making it a powerful tool for reflection on human nature and society.

5.1 Key Elements of Epic Poetry

Aristotle identifies several key elements that are essential to the structure and effectiveness
of epic poetry, many of which are similar to those in tragedy but applied in distinct ways.
These elements include the plot, character, thought, diction, and song. However, because
epic poetry is primarily a narrative form, spectacle plays a less significant role compared
to its importance in tragedy.
 Chapter 5: Epic Poetry

5.2 Application and Examples of Key Elements

5.2.1 Plot
The plot in epic poetry is grander and more expansive than that of tragedy, often
encompassing a series of interconnected episodes that collectively tell the story of a hero's
journey. Aristotle emphasizes that while the epic plot may include numerous subplots and
digressions, it must maintain a coherent structure to ensure that the narrative remains unified
and purposeful.
An example of a well-constructed epic plot can be found in Homer's Iliad, where the story
of the Trojan War is presented with multiple layers of action, yet all events are intricately
linked to the central theme of heroism and fate. Similarly, in Virgil's Aeneid, the plot follows
the trials and triumphs of Aeneas as he seeks to fulfil his destiny, demonstrating how a
complex narrative can maintain cohesion while exploring various themes.

5.2.2 Character
Characters in epic poetry are typically larger-than-life figures who embody the virtues and
ideals of their culture. Aristotle notes that these characters must be consistent, noble, and
capable of great deeds, serving as exemplars of moral and ethical behaviour.
For instance, the character of Achilles in the Iliad represents the archetype of the tragic hero
whose personal flaws lead to both greatness and downfall. Similarly, Odysseus in the
Odyssey is portrayed as a cunning and resourceful hero, whose intellect and perseverance
are central to the narrative.

5.2.3 Thought
Thought in epic poetry is expressed through the themes and ideas conveyed by the
characters' actions and speeches. Aristotle highlights that the thoughts expressed in epic
poetry should be profound and reflective of the moral and philosophical concerns of the
time.
In Paradise Lost by John Milton, the epic explores deep theological and existential
questions through the character of Satan and his rebellion against God. The thought

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 Chapter 5: Epic Poetry

element in this epic not only serves to drive the narrative but also invites the reader to
contemplate issues of free will, justice, and the nature of good and evil.

5.2.4 Diction and Song

Diction in epic poetry is elevated and formal, employing a grand style that befits the
subject matter. The language used is often archaic or ceremonial, reflecting the importance
and seriousness of the events described. Song, while less prominent in epic poetry than in
tragedy, still plays a role in enhancing the narrative's emotional resonance.
Homer's epics are renowned for their use of formulaic expressions and repeated phrases,
which contribute to the rhythmic and musical quality of the text. This use of diction helps
to create a sense of continuity and tradition, reinforcing the epic's status as a timeless
narrative.
Aristotle's examination of epic poetry in Poetics reveals its enduring appeal as a literary
form that transcends time and culture. By understanding the key elements that make epic
poetry effective, creators and audiences alike can appreciate the complexity and depth of
this genre. The principles outlined by Aristotle continue to influence modern storytelling,
ensuring that the epic remains a vital and relevant form of expression.

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Chapter 6
Diction

In the chapters on diction (lexis) from Aristotle’s Poetics, Aristotle examines how
the choice and arrangement of words affect the style and effectiveness of literary works. He
emphasizes that diction plays a crucial role in ensuring clarity and enhancing the
sophistication of a text. Aristotle distinguishes between different types of words: current
words for clarity, strange words for uniqueness, metaphorical words for figurative depth,
and ornamental words for stylistic flourish. Effective diction strikes a balance between these
elements, ensuring that language remains both accessible and elevated. Aristotle also
defends the use of linguistic innovations, such as lengthening and altering words, arguing
that they can contribute to a distinctive and refined literary style. Overall, Aristotle’s insights
into diction highlight its essential role in shaping a work’s impact and readability.

6.1 Key Elements of Diction

The key elements of diction as discussed in Aristotle’s Poetics. In Aristotle’s Poetics, diction
(lexis) is a crucial element that influences the effectiveness and style of literary works. The
key elements of diction include clarity and comprehensibility, where familiar and current
words are employed to ensure that the language is accessible and understandable to the
audience. At the same time, diction should provide sophistication and elevation by
incorporating unusual, metaphorical, or ornamental words, adding stylistic depth and
distinguishing the work from ordinary language. Aristotle emphasizes the importance of
appropriateness, where word choice must align with the plot, characters, and thematic
content to enhance the narrative. He advocates for a balance between familiar and novel
language, as excessive use of rare or metaphorical terms can obscure meaning, while relying
solely on common words may lack distinctiveness. Additionally, Aristotle supports the use
of linguistic innovations, such as lengthening or altering words, as long as they contribute
to a refined and distinctive style rather than serving as superficial gimmicks. These elements
 Chapter 6: Diction

collectively underscore how diction shapes the clarity, sophistication, and overall impact of
a literary piece.

6.2 Application and Examples of Key Elements

6.2.1 Plot
Aristotle emphasizes that a plot should be unified and have a sense of completeness, where
each part contributes to the whole. It should evoke emotions such as pity and fear, leading
to catharsis—the emotional purging or relief experienced by the audience. The plot must
also be well-organized, with incidents that are causally related and contribute to the overall
development of the story. Aristotle's emphasis on plot highlights its central role in
determining the effectiveness and impact of a dramatic work.

6.2.2 Character

The choice of words significantly shapes how characters are portrayed and developed.
Aristotle asserts that diction must be appropriate to the character’s personality, status, and
emotional state. For example, a noble character might use elevated or formal language,
reflecting their high status, while a lower-class character would use simpler, more
colloquial speech. This alignment between diction and character traits ensures that
characters are consistent and believable. Furthermore, diction plays a crucial role in
character development by revealing individual traits and emotional depths through the
language used. The way characters interact and converse, through their choice of words
and style, also contributes to the dynamics of their relationships, highlighting conflicts,
alliances, or tensions. Effective diction thus enhances the portrayal of characters, making
them more vivid and integral to the narrative.

6.2.3 Thought
It refers to the thematic and intellectual content expressed through a literary work. It
encompasses the ideas, arguments, and philosophical reflections that characters convey

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 Chapter 6: Diction

through their dialogues and actions. Aristotle highlights that thought is a crucial element
because it gives meaning and depth to the narrative, connecting the plot and characters to
broader concepts and moral insights.
Aristotle emphasizes that thought should be integrated seamlessly with the plot and
character development. It involves the exploration of universal themes and ideas, such as
justice, virtue, or human nature, and should be articulated in a way that enhances the overall
impact of the story.

6.2.4 Diction and Song

Diction involves the choice of words and expression, while song pertains to rhythm and
musicality in a play. Together, they enhance the narrative's emotional and aesthetic
qualities.

In musicals and poetic dramas, diction and song vividly convey emotions and themes. Les
Misérables uses song to deepen the emotional impact, with lyrics that reflect the
characters’ struggles. Contemporary films like La La Land use songs to express characters'
emotions, allowing audiences to connect deeply with their experiences. Carefully chosen
diction also helps establish tone and authenticity in various genres.
Aristotle underscores the pivotal role of word choice and arrangement in shaping literary
style. He emphasizes that diction must balance clarity and sophistication, using familiar
words for accessibility and novel or ornamental language for distinction. Effective diction
enhances the portrayal of characters, supports thematic expression, and contributes to the
overall impact of the narrative. Aristotle’s insights highlight the importance of thoughtful
language use in creating engaging and artistically refined literature.

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Chapter 7
Plot

Aristotle’s Poetics is a foundational text in Western literary criticism, providing a

comprehensive framework for understanding the mechanics of tragedy. Written in the 4th
century BCE, it has influenced countless writers, poets, and philosophers, offering insights
into the nature of storytelling that remain relevant today. Aristotle’s analysis of plot,
character, and emotional impact continues to shape the way narratives are understood, not
just in ancient Greek tragedies but also in contemporary literature and film.
The Poetics is particularly significant for its exploration of tragedy, which Aristotle defines
as an imitation of a serious, complete action of a certain magnitude. His emphasis on plot,
character development, and the cathartic effects of tragedy has become a cornerstone of
literary theory. This study will focus on specific chapters—7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 16—
that delve into these elements, analysing their relevance to both classical and modern
narratives.
These chapters are critical in understanding how Aristotle’s theories apply to modern
storytelling. By examining contemporary films and novels alongside Aristotle’s principles,
this analysis will reveal how the ideas presented in the Poetics continue to influence and
inform the creation of compelling narratives. Whether it’s the unity of plot, the role of the
poet, or the concept of the tragic hero, Aristotle’s insights provide a timeless guide to the
art of storytelling.
In the following sections, this project will explore these chapters in detail, drawing on
examples from modern cinema and literature to illustrate how Aristotle’s concepts are
realized in practice. From the tragic hero’s downfall to the emotional catharsis of a well-
constructed plot, it will become clear how the principles laid out in the Poetics resonate
across different eras and genres.
 Chapter 7: Plot

7.1 The Definition of Tragedy

Aristotle begins his exploration of tragedy by defining it as an art form that imitates
actions with seriousness, magnitude, and a complete structure. This imitation is meant to
evoke pity and fear in the audience, ultimately leading to a catharsis of these emotions.
Aristotle’s emphasis on the completeness of the action and the emotional impact of
tragedy is central to his theory, setting the stage for his further analysis of plot and
character.

A modern example that aligns closely with this definition is Steven Spielberg’s
Schindler’s List (1993). The film’s portrayal of Oskar Schindler, a German industrialist
who saves over a thousand Jewish lives during the Holocaust, embodies the serious and
complete action that Aristotle describes. The narrative arc, from Schindler’s initial
indifference to his moral awakening and final act of saving lives, mirrors Aristotle’s idea
of a serious and complete action with a clear beginning, middle, and end.

Schindler’s List evokes profound pity and fear, particularly in its depiction of the atrocities
of the Holocaust and the moral complexities of Schindler’s character. The film’s ability to
elicit these emotions and guide the audience toward a cathartic experience aligns with
Aristotle’s conception of tragedy. The catharsis here is not just an emotional release but
also a moral reckoning, as viewers are confronted with the horrors of the past and the
capacity for individual moral transformation.

7.2 The Unity of Plot

Aristotle emphasizes the importance of unity in a plot, arguing that every part of the
narrative must contribute to the whole. This unity is crucial for maintaining the coherence
and emotional impact of the story. A plot that is unified in action ensures that the story
progresses logically and that each event is connected, leading to a satisfying and complete
narrative.

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 Chapter 7: Plot

Christopher Nolan’s The Dark Knight (2008) is a prime example of a modern film that
maintains a unified plot. The film follows Bruce Wayne, a.k.a. Batman, as he grapples
with the chaos unleashed by the Joker. Every subplot, character decision, and conflict is
interwoven to create a cohesive narrative that escalates tension and culminates in a
powerful resolution.

In The Dark Knight, the unity of plot is meticulously maintained as each event logically
leads to the next, building tension and maintaining coherence from start to finish. The
Joker’s unpredictable yet strategically planned actions test Batman’s moral limits,
ensuring that the narrative’s momentum never falters. This coherence is essential for
keeping the audience engaged and ensuring that the story’s emotional impact is fully
realized.

In contrast, stories that lack unity often feel disjointed or confusing, with events that seem
irrelevant or out of place. Aristotle’s insistence on a unified plot is a testament to his
understanding of how crucial narrative coherence is to the effectiveness of a tragedy. The
Dark Knight demonstrates how this principle can be applied to modern storytelling,
creating a narrative that is both compelling and emotionally resonant.

7.3 The Role of the Poet

Aristotle makes a crucial distinction between history and poetry, arguing that while history
deals with specific events, poetry (and by extension, fiction) deals with universal truths.
According to Aristotle, the poet’s role is to convey these universal truths through the art of
storytelling, creating narratives that resonate across different times and cultures.

George Orwell’s 1984 is a perfect example of a work that embodies Aristotle’s idea of
poetry as a medium for universal truths. While 1984 is a fictional dystopia, its exploration
of totalitarianism, the manipulation of truth, and the loss of individual freedom speaks to
universal themes that are relevant across different eras. Orwell, like the poet Aristotle
describes, uses fiction to convey deeper truths about society and human nature.

The themes explored in 1984—such as the dangers of absolute power and the erosion of
personal autonomy—are not tied to a specific historical context but rather to the broader

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human experience. This universality is what makes the novel so powerful and enduring.
Orwell’s ability to capture these truths through fiction exemplifies the role of the poet as
envisioned by Aristotle, highlighting the continued relevance of his ideas in contemporary
literature.

7.4 Simple and Complex Plots

Aristotle distinguishes between simple and complex plots, favouring the latter for their
inclusion of elements such as peripeteia (reversal) and anagnorisis (recognition). These
elements, according to Aristotle, are essential for creating a narrative that is both engaging
and emotionally powerful. A complex plot, with its unexpected twists and moments of
realization, keeps the audience invested and enhances the emotional impact of the story.

Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex is a quintessential example of a complex plot. The story’s

peripeteia occurs when Oedipus, the King of Thebes, learns that he has inadvertently
fulfilled a prophecy by killing his father and marrying his mother. The anagnorisis—the
moment of recognition—comes when Oedipus realizes his true identity, leading to his
tragic downfall.

This combination of reversal and recognition not only drives the plot forward but also
deepens the audience’s emotional engagement with the story. The tragic irony of
Oedipus’s situation, where his efforts to avoid his fate only bring it closer, creates a
powerful emotional resonance. This aligns perfectly with Aristotle’s preference for
complex plots, which use these elements to evoke pity and fear, leading to catharsis.

Modern films like The Sixth Sense and Fight Club also employ complex plots with
significant moments of recognition that recontextualize the entire narrative. In The Sixth
Sense, the revelation that Dr. Malcolm Crowe has been dead the entire time serves as a
powerful anagnorisis, while in Fight Club, the realization that the protagonist and Tyler
Durden are the same person acts as a dramatic reversal. These modern examples
demonstrate the enduring appeal of complex plots in creating compelling stories.

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7.5 The Parts of a Plot

Aristotle further elaborates on the essential components of a well-constructed plot,

particularly focusing on peripeteia and anagnorisis. These elements are crucial in creating
the twists and turns that keep an audience engaged, ensuring that the narrative remains
dynamic and emotionally impactful.

Christopher Nolan’s The Prestige (2006) is an excellent example of a film that masterfully
incorporates both peripeteia and anagnorisis. The movie follows two rival magicians,
whose lives are intertwined by obsession, deceit, and the relentless pursuit of perfection.
The plot is complex, with multiple layers of deception and moments of shocking
realization.

The peripeteia in The Prestige occurs as the audience discovers the true nature of the
magicians' rivalry and the extreme lengths they go to outdo each other. The anagnorisis is
delivered in the final act when the true identity and the ultimate sacrifices made by the
protagonists are revealed. These elements of the plot create a narrative that is both
intellectually stimulating and emotionally resonant, fulfilling Aristotle’s criteria for a
complex and engaging story.

7.6 The Concept of the Tragic Hero

Aristotle’s concept of the tragic hero is one of the most enduring ideas in literary criticism.
A tragic hero is typically a person of noble birth who is destined for downfall, suffering, or
defeat. This downfall is often due to a fatal flaw (hamartia) or a mistake in judgment. The
tragic hero’s journey evokes both pity and fear in the audience, leading to catharsis.

One of the most powerful examples of a tragic hero in modern literature is Jay Gatsby
from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. Gatsby’s hamartia is his obsessive pursuit of
an idealized version of the American Dream, represented by his love for Daisy Buchanan.
Gatsby’s downfall is tragic because it is the result of his own relentless desire for

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something unattainable, and his ultimate demise evokes a profound sense of loss and
inevitability.

Gatsby’s story is a modern exploration of the tragic hero archetype, where his virtues and
flaws are inextricably linked, leading to his inevitable downfall. The audience’s pity for
Gatsby’s unfulfilled dreams and fear of the destructive nature of obsession align with
Aristotle’s vision of tragedy, where the hero’s fate is both inevitable and deeply moving.
This analysis reveals how Aristotle’s concept of the tragic hero continues to be a powerful
tool for understanding characters and narratives in contemporary literature.

7.7 Catharsis and Emotional Impact

Aristotle’s concept of catharsis refers to the emotional release experienced by the audience
through the emotions of pity and fear. This emotional purging is a crucial aspect of
tragedy, as it allows the audience to confront and process intense emotions in a controlled
environment.

Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960) is a masterclass in using narrative and cinematic

techniques to build tension and evoke fear, ultimately leading to catharsis. The film’s
shocking twists, particularly the infamous shower scene, create an atmosphere of suspense
and dread that keeps the audience on edge.

The fear induced by Psycho is not just from the immediate threat posed by Norman Bates
but also from the deeper psychological horror of confronting the unknown and the
unpredictable nature of human behaviour. The catharsis comes as the narrative concludes,
with the audience left to process the intense emotions generated by the film’s revelations
and the resolution of its central mysteries.

7.8 Character and Morality in Tragedy

Aristotle discusses the importance of character in tragedy, emphasizing that characters

must be morally complex and relatable. He argues that the protagonist’s actions should

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stem from their personality and moral disposition, making their fate both inevitable and
meaningful.

Tony Soprano from the television series The Sopranos is a prime example of a morally
complex character in modern storytelling. As a mob boss struggling with personal and
professional conflicts, Tony’s character is multifaceted, displaying both ruthless behaviour
and moments of vulnerability. His moral ambiguity and the choices he makes drive the
narrative forward, making his ultimate fate a reflection of his internal struggles.

Tony Soprano’s character is a modern interpretation of Aristotle’s ideas about the moral
dimensions of tragedy. His journey is compelling because it is rooted in his flawed
humanity, making his story both relatable and tragic. Aristotle’s insights into the role of
character in tragedy continue to be relevant in understanding and creating complex,
morally nuanced protagonists.

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Chapter 8
Conclusion

8.1 Summary of Key Findings

The project has critically explored the core principles and their application to modern
storytelling in Aristotle's Poetics. This research suggests that his ideas on mimesis, the tragic
hero, catharsis, and plot structure remain strongly influential in drama-making and study.
The project illustrates, with examples from both classic and contemporary films and
literature, how these ancient theories have been adapted and reinterpreted in various forms
of narrative.

8.2 The Validity of Aristotle's Poetics in Modern Storytelling

One of the major findings of this research is that Aristotle's Poetics still holds relevance in
modern storytelling. The idea of mimesis remains foundational in contemporary concepts
of drama's role in representing and interpreting human lives, while the tragic hero, with his
hamartia, continues to be a compelling character archetype in contemporary narratives. The
present research has shown that Aristotle's ideas regarding plot construction, particularly
the importance of unity and coherence, remain valuable for creating touching and effective
works. However, the project also highlighted some weaknesses in Aristotle's theories when
extended to genres and narrative forms beyond the ancient tradition of tragedy. While
Poetics provides useful principles for understanding dramatic structure, the evolution of
narrative in different media has necessitated new approaches that sometimes challenge or
extend Aristotle's original concepts. This adaptability underscores the flexibility and
robustness of Aristotle's ideas, even as they are tested against the demands of modern
narratives.
 Chapter 8: Conclusion

8.3 Contribution to the Study of Drama

This research contributes to the ongoing study of drama by bridging the gap between ancient
and modern perspectives. Through critical engagement with Poetics and the application of
its principles to present-day examples, this project shows that Aristotle's work is not merely
a historical artifact but a living document of continued influence and inspiration in the art
of storytelling. The emphasis on opinionated critique, rather than mere summary, has
allowed for a deeper understanding of how classical theories can be implemented and re-
imagined in today's creative contexts.

8.4 Implications for Future Research

The results of this study offer several avenues for future research. One interesting aspect to
explore could be the application of Aristotle's principles to non-Western forms of drama and
literature, potentially offering alternative approaches to the problem of universality or
cultural specificity. Further study may involve examining how Aristotle's theories interact
with emerging narrative forms in digital media and interactive storytelling to assess how
those principles hold up in radically different contexts.

8.5 Final Reflections

This project has reiterated the importance of Aristotle's Poetics as a foundational text in the
study of drama. Although Aristotle's theories have been opposed and reinterpreted in various
ways over the centuries, their fundamental insights remain crucial to storytelling today. By
critically engaging with Poetics and modern narratives, this research demonstrates that
Aristotle's ideas remain seminal in providing tools for understanding and creating effective
drama. These enduring ideas highlight the power and vigor of Aristotle's contributions to
literary theory, ensuring they continue to serve as essential resources for scholars, artists,
and storytellers into the future.

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