Coordinate Geometry — Comprehensive Notes

(Detailed explanations, derivations, and key

techniques)
Prepared for IOQM-style study

Preface
These notes collect and explain coordinate-geometry definitions, formulas, theorems, and
important techniques used in olympiad problems. Wherever variables might be ambigu-
ous I state them explicitly. Short derivations, proof sketches, and small examples are
included so the content is ready-to-use for problem solving.

Notation and conventions

• Points: A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ), C(x3 , y3 ) unless otherwise stated.

• General line: L : Ax + By + C = 0 (we will often use A, B, C for line coefficients

— do not confuse with triangle vertices).

• General 2 2
p circle: S : x + y + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0. Then centre = (−g, −f ) and
r = g 2 + f 2 − c (requires g 2 + f 2 − c ≥ 0).

• For a triangle, side lengths opposite A, B, C are denoted by a = BC, b = CA, c =

AB (Euclidean distances).

• Vectors: ⃗v denotes a vector; position vector of point P (x, y) is written OP

⃗ = (x, y)
when origin O is clear.

1 I. Points and Lines — Basics (unambiguous state-

ments + derivations)

1.1 1. Distance formula

For P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ),

p
PQ = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .

Derivation/Note: Direct Pythagoras: horizontal difference = x2 −x1 , vertical = y2 −y1 .

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1.2 2. Midpoint and section formula
 
x1 + x2 y 1 + y 2
Midpoint: M , . (Special case m = n = 1.)
2 2
Section (internal): If P divides AB in ratio m : n with AP : P B = m : n (both
positive), then  
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1
P , .
m+n m+n
Section (external): If P divides AB externally (directed ratio m : −n), then
 
mx2 − nx1 my2 − ny1
P , .
m−n m−n

Clarification: “Internal” means point lies between A and B. For external be careful
with signs and orientation.

1.3 3. Slope / Inclination

Slope of line through A, B:

y2 − y1
m= , x2 ̸= x1 .
x2 − x1
Inclination angle θ satisfies tan θ = m. Vertical line: x = x0 with undefined slope.

1.4 4. Equation forms of a line (choose based on data)

• Point-slope: y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

• Two-point form: (y − y1 )/(y2 − y1 ) = (x − x1 )/(x2 − x1 ).

• Slope-intercept: y = mx + c.
x y
• Intercept form: + = 1 (valid when intercepts a, b ̸= 0).
a b
• Normal form: x cos α + y sin α = p, where p is perpendicular distance from origin
and α the normal angle.

Tip: Use normal form for distance calculations; intercept form when axes intercepts are
given.

1.5 5. Parallelism and perpendicularity

Parallel: m1 = m2 . Perpendicular: m1 m2 = −1.

Caveat: When lines are vertical/horizontal handle with m = ∞ appropriately.

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1.6 6. Angle between two lines

If slopes m1 , m2 then acute angle θ between them is

m1 − m2
tan θ = .
1 + m1 m2

Use: find angle of intersection; if denominator = 0 then θ = 90◦ .

1.7 7. Distance from point to line

For L : Ax + By + C = 0, point P (x0 , y0 ):

|Ax0 + By0 + C|
dist(P, L) = √ .
A2 + B 2
Derivation: Project vector from any point on L to P onto normal vector (A, B).

1.8 8. Distance between two parallel lines

For L1 : Ax + By + C1 = 0 and L2 : Ax + By + C2 = 0,
|C1 − C2 |
dist(L1 , L2 ) = √ .
A2 + B 2

1.9 9. Family of lines through intersection

If L1 = 0 and L2 = 0 meet at a point, then family is L1 + λL2 = 0, λ ∈ R.

2 II. Triangles — Coordinates and Key Centers (ex-

plicit variable definitions)

2.1 10. Area of triangle (determinant / shoelace)

For A(x1 , y1 ), B(x2 , y2 ), C(x3 , y3 ),

x y 1
1 1 1 1
[ABC] = x2 y2 1 = |x1 (y2 − y3 ) + x2 (y3 − y1 ) + x3 (y1 − y2 )|.
2 2
x3 y 3 1

Use: For area comparisons, collinearity test.

2.2 11. Collinearity

A, B, C collinear iff determinant above = 0 (area = 0).

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2.3 12. Centroid
x + x + x y + y + y 
1 2 3 1 2 3
G , .
3 3
Note: centroid divides each median in ratio 2 : 1 from vertex.

2.4 13. Medians and equations

x2 +x3 y2 +y3


Median from A is line through A and midpoint MBC 2
, 2 .

2.5 14. Orthocentre

Orthocentre H is intersection of altitudes. Practical computation: write equation of two

altitudes (each altitude passes through a vertex and is perpendicular to opposite side)
and solve.
Vector trick (useful): If circumcenter O is origin, and ⃗a, ⃗b, ⃗c are position vectors of
A, B, C then
⃗h = ⃗a + ⃗b + ⃗c,

i.e. coordinates of H are sum of coordinates of vertices when circumcenter at origin.

(Proof sketch): Use property that altitudes correspond to perpendicularity and the
circumcircle being unit/centered simplifies dot-product identities.

2.6 15. Circumcentre

Circumcentre (u, v) satisfies equal distances to vertices; solve

(u − x1 )2 + (v − y1 )2 = (u − x2 )2 + (v − y2 )2 , (u − x2 )2 + (v − y2 )2 = (u − x3 )2 + (v − y3 )2 .

These subtract to give linear equations in (u, v).

2.7 16. Incentre and excentres (explicit barycentric form)

Let side lengths be a = |BC|, b = |CA|, c = |AB|. Then

 ax + bx + cx ay + by + cy 
1 2 3 1 2 3
I , .
a+b+c a+b+c
Derivation sketch: Angle bisector theorem applied to coordinates yields weighted av-
erages with weights equal to adjacent sides.
Excentre opposite A (denoted Ia ):
 −ax + bx + cx −ay + by + cy 
1 2 3 1 2 3
Ia , .
−a + b + c −a + b + c
Care: denominators must be nonzero; these are directed relations.

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2.8 17. Nine-point circle

Center N is midpoint of OH (circumcenter to orthocenter), radius R/2. Passes through

midpoints of sides, feet of altitudes, and midpoints of AH, BH, CH.

2.9 18. Euler line

O, G, H are collinear with OG : GH = 1 : 2 (or OG = 13 OH and HG = 23 OH). It’s often

used to locate H or O given G and one other.

3 III. Circles — in-depth (variables clarified)

3.1 19. Circle equation forms

• Standard: (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2 (center (h, k), radius r ≥ 0).

• General: x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 where center (−g, −f ) and r2 = g 2 + f 2 − c.

3.2 20. Tangent at a point on circle (point form)

If S(x, y) ≡ x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0 and (x1 , y1 ) lies on S, tangent at that point is

T : xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1 ) + f (y + y1 ) + c = 0.

Alternate compact form: Replace x2 by xx1 and y 2 by yy1 in S (linearization).

3.3 21. Condition for tangency of y = mx + c to circle

Substitute y = mx+c into circle to obtain a quadratic in x. Line is tangent iff discriminant
= 0. Equivalent geometric condition: distance from center to line = r. Algebraically this
simplifies (after work) to an expression connecting m, c, g, f, c0 .

3.4 22. Length of tangent from point (power of a point)

For P (x1 , y1 ),

(length of tangent)2 = S(x1 , y1 ) = x21 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2f y1 + c.

Sign of S(P ): negative ⇒ point inside circle, zero ⇒ on circle, positive ⇒ outside (tangent
lengths real).

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3.5 23. Radical axis and radical centre

For circles S1 = 0 and S2 = 0, the radical axis is S1 − S2 = 0 (a line). Points on radical

axis have equal powers to the two circles. For three circles, pairwise radical axes are
concurrent at the radical centre.
Use case: construct common chord intersections, find locus of centers of circles orthog-
onal to two given ones, etc.

3.6 24. Pole–polar with respect to a circle (brief )

Given circle S = 0. For point P (not necessarily on circle) the polar line is given by
T = 0 where T is the tangent-form expression with (x1 , y1 ) replaced by P . Important
reciprocity: P lies on polar of Q iff Q lies on polar of P .
Application: Many olympiad problems reduce nicely using pole–polar transforms.

4 IV. Conics — standard forms, tangents, director

circle

4.1 25. Parabola (standard)

y 2 = 4ax (focus (a, 0), directrix x = −a).

Tangent at (x1 , y1 ): yy1 = 2a(x + x1 ).
Latus rectum: line through focus, length 4a for y 2 = 4ax. Focal definition: distance to
focus = distance to directrix.

4.2 26. Ellipse (standard axis along x)

x2 y 2
+ 2 = 1, a > b > 0.
a2 b
2 2 2
Foci at (±c, 0) with c = a − b . Sum of distances to foci = 2a. Tangent at (x1 , y1 ):
xx1 yy1
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b

4.3 27. Hyperbola (standard)

x2 y 2
− 2 = 1, c2 = a2 + b2 .
a2 b
xx1 yy1
Asymptotes: y = ± ab x; tangent at (x1 , y1 ): − 2 = 1.
a2 b

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4.4 28. Director circle (perpendicular tangents locus)
2 2
For ellipse xa2 + yb2 = 1, the director circle is x2 + y 2 = a2 + b2 . Meaning: if P lies on this
circle then tangents from P to ellipse are perpendicular.

5 V. Loci and Special Loci (with derivation hints)

5.1 29. Perpendicular bisector (locus of equidistance)

Set of points equidistant from A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) is the perpendicular bisector of
AB. Derived by equating squared distances: (x − x1 )2 + (y − y1 )2 = (x − x2 )2 + (y − y2 )2
simplifies to a linear equation.

5.2 30. Apollonius circle

PA
Locus of points P with = λ ̸= 1 is a circle. Derive by squaring and simplifying the
PB
relation of distances.

5.3 31. Locus problems — standard method

1. Write given geometric condition in algebraic form (distances, slopes, ratios).
2. Replace distances by squared distances when necessary to remove square roots.
3. Simplify to identify a conic (circle/line/ parabola/ellipse/hyperbola) or pair of lines.
4. Check degenerate cases (e.g. denominator zero, λ = 1, etc).

6 VI. Pairs of lines and Quadratics

6.1 32. Pair of lines through origin (homogeneous quadratic)

General homogeneous second-degree: ax2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 splits into two lines through
origin iff h2 = ab. The two lines are y = m1 x and y = m2 x where m1,2 are roots of
am2 + 2hm + b = 0.

6.2 33. Angle bisectors between two lines

For L1 : a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and L2 : a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0, internal/external bisectors are

given by
a1 x + b 1 y + c 1 a2 x + b 2 y + c 2
p = ± p .
a21 + b21 a22 + b22
Note: choose sign to get internal vs external.

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7 VII. Advanced Theorems — statements and short
proofs (useful in IOQM)

7.1 34. Radical axis concurrency (radical center)

Statement: For three circles, pairwise radical axes are concurrent.

Sketch: Solve pairwise Si − Sj = 0 linear system; two will intersect at a point; plugging
into third yields equality by linear dependence.

7.2 35. Simson line (statement only + coordinate idea)

If P lies on circumcircle of △ABC, feet of perpendiculars from P to lines AB, BC, CA

are collinear.
Coordinate idea: Work in complex or vector coordinates placing circumcircle as unit
circle; perpendicular foot expressions become linear and collinearity determinant vanishes.

7.3 36. Pole–polar reciprocity (key facts)

Given circle S, polarity maps points lines with reciprocal incidence: P lies on polar of
Q ⇐⇒ Q lies on polar of P . Useful for transforming incidence problems into collinearity/
concurrency problems.

7.4 37. Euler line (proof sketch)

Using vector/coordinate placement: put circumcenter at origin and express G and H as

combinations of vertex vectors; show collinearity and ratio by algebraic manipulation.

8 VIII. Transformations: translations, rotations, ho-

mothety

8.1 38. Translation

Translate coordinates by vector (h, k): (x, y) 7→ (x + h, y + k). Use to shift circle/center
to origin.

8.2 39. Rotation about origin by angle θ

(x, y) 7→ (x cos θ − y sin θ, x sin θ + y cos θ).

Application: Remove xy term of rotated conics; align axes with symmetry.

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8.3 40. Homothety (dilation)

Center O = (x0 , y0 ) and ratio λ: point (x, y) 7→ (x0 + λ(x − x0 ), y0 + λ(y − y0 )). Section
formula is a special case of homothety.

9 IX. Common pitfalls & tips (IOQM practice ori-

ented)
• Always define whether a ratio is directed or not when using section formulas (in-
ternal vs external).
• Squaring removes sign info — always check extraneous solutions when solving locus
problems.
• When using barycentric formulae for incenter/excenter, ensure to compute side
lengths a, b, c correctly (use Euclidean distances).
• Use convenient coordinate placements: often place triangle so circumcenter = origin
or one vertex at origin to simplify algebra.
• For tangency conditions, prefer distance-from-center method when possible (geo-
metric) — discriminant algebra gets messy.
• Remember vector trick for orthocentre only when circumcenter at origin — other-
wise transform first.

10 X. Quick Reference Sheet (compact, 1-page style)

– drop into your memory
• Distance:
p
(dx)2 + (dy)2
 
x1 + x 2 y 1 + y 2
• Midpoint: ,
2 2
 
mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1
• Section internal: ,
m+n m+n
• Line: Ax + By + C = 0, slope = −A/B (B ̸= 0)
√
• Point-line distance: |Ax0 + By0 + C|/ A2 + B 2
• Circle: x2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2f y + c = 0, center (−g, −f ), r2 = g 2 + f 2 − c
• Tangent (circle) at (x1 , y1 ): xx1 + yy1 + g(x + x1 ) + f (y + y1 ) + c = 0
• Parabola: y 2 = 4ax (focus (a, 0))
• Ellipse: x2 /a2 + y 2 /b2 = 1, c2 = a2 − b2
• Hyperbola: x2 /a2 − y 2 /b2 = 1, c2 = a2 + b2