Programming Fundamentals - Basics
Introduction to Programming
Programming is the process of creating a set of instructions that tell a computer how to perform a
task. It involves writing, testing, and maintaining code. In this chapter, we explore why programming
is important, and how it powers everything from simple calculators to advanced AI systems.
What is an Algorithm?
An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure to solve a problem. Algorithms are the foundation of
programming. For example, a recipe is an algorithm for cooking. Flowcharts are visual
representations of algorithms, helping programmers plan before coding.
Flowcharts
Flowcharts use shapes like ovals, rectangles, and diamonds to represent processes, decisions, and
inputs/outputs. They make problem-solving easier by visualizing the steps.
Variables
Variables are like containers that store data. They allow programmers to save information for later
use. For example, int age = 18; stores a number in a variable named age.
Data Types
Common data types include integers, floating-point numbers, characters, strings, and booleans.
Choosing the correct data type is important for efficiency and accuracy.
Input and Output
Input is the way users provide data to a program, and output is how the program shows results. For
example, taking a number from a user and printing its square.
Operators
Operators are special symbols that perform operations on data. Examples: Arithmetic operators (+,
-), Comparison operators (==, !=), and Logical operators (&&, ||).
Conditional Statements
Conditionals allow decisions in a program. The IF statement checks conditions and executes code
accordingly. Example: if (age >= 18) { print('Adult'); }.
Loops
Loops allow repetition. Types include: For loop, While loop, and Do-while loop. They reduce
redundancy by running the same code multiple times.
Switch Statement
Switch is an alternative to multiple IF statements. It checks a variable against several cases,
executing the matching one.
Functions
Functions are reusable blocks of code that perform a specific task. Example: int add(int a, int b) {
return a+b; }. Functions promote reusability and modularity.
Parameters and Return Values
Parameters are inputs to functions, and return values are outputs. They make functions flexible and
powerful.
Scope of Variables
Scope defines where a variable can be accessed. Local variables exist only inside a function, while
global variables exist throughout the program.
Arrays
Arrays store multiple values of the same type in a single variable. Example: int marks[5] = {90, 85,
88, 92, 75};.
Strings
Strings are sequences of characters. They can be manipulated with functions like length, substring,
and concatenation.
Error Handling Basics
Errors are of three types: syntax errors, runtime errors, and logical errors. Debugging is the process
of finding and fixing these errors.
Comments in Code
Comments are ignored by the compiler but help programmers document their code. Example: //
This is a comment.
Good Programming Practices
Practices include writing readable code, using meaningful variable names, and keeping functions
short and focused.
Pseudo Code
Pseudo code is a plain language description of steps in an algorithm. It helps in planning programs
before coding.
Basic Problem Solving
Problem solving involves understanding the problem, designing an algorithm, implementing it in
code, and testing the solution.
Introduction to Object-Oriented Concepts
Though advanced, beginners should know about objects, classes, and encapsulation. These
concepts make large programs easier to manage.
Real-life Programming Examples
Examples: ATM machine logic, online shopping cart, or a simple calculator program.
Exercises - Variables & Data Types
Practice: Declare 5 variables of different types and print their values.
Exercises - Conditionals & Loops
Practice: Write a program to print numbers 1 to 100. Modify it to print only even numbers.
Exercises - Functions
Practice: Write a function that takes two numbers and returns their greatest common divisor (GCD).
Exercises - Arrays
Practice: Store 10 numbers in an array and print the maximum and minimum values.
Mini Project - Calculator
Build a simple calculator that performs +, -, *, / operations using conditionals and functions.
Mini Project - Student Grading System
Create a program that takes student marks, stores them in an array, calculates average, and prints
grades.
Mini Project - Number Guessing Game
Write a program where the computer generates a random number, and the user guesses until
correct.
Final Thoughts & Next Steps
Programming fundamentals are just the beginning. Next, you can explore advanced topics like
Object-Oriented Programming, Data Structures, and Algorithms.
