I.

INTRODUCTION TO LIE DETECTION

Lie detection, also known as Deception Detection, Scientific Truth Verification, or Forensic Psychophysiology, is a
scientific method employed to identify deception through various means such as observation, mechanical lie detection, the use
of drugs, hypnosis, and interrogation techniques. Psychophysiological Veracity Examination, Psychophysiological Detection
of Deception, and Psychophysiological Credibility Assessment are terms associated with lie detection.

Polygraphy, a scientific method for detecting deception, involves the use of a polygraph instrument. The term
"Polygraph" is derived from the Greek words "Poly," meaning many or several, and "Graph," referring to writing or chart.
This instrument is capable of simultaneously recording changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, respiration, and skin resistance,
providing indicators of emotional disturbance, especially in a subject who may be lying during questioning. Interestingly,
Thomas Jefferson was the first person known to use the term "Polygraph" to describe one of his inventions.

Key Terms

1. Deception - is the act of deceiving or misleading usually accompanied by lying.

2. Emotion - it refers to an emotional response to specific danger that appears to be beyond a person’s defensive power.
3. Lying - is the act of uttering or conveying falsehood or creating a false or misleading impression with the intention of
affecting wrongfully.

II. TYPES OF LIES AND LIARS

Types of Lies

● Direct Denial - A lie delivered straightforwardly, often with conviction, aimed at refuting an accusation or statement,
causing emotional distress to the deceived party.
● Lie of Omission - An intentional omission of key details in a narrative to avoid revealing incriminating information,
leading to a skewed perception of the truth.
● Lie of Exaggeration - A deceptive act wherein a person magnifies or amplifies events beyond their actual occurrence,
presenting an embellished version of reality.
● Lie of Minimization - A deceptive tactic involving the acknowledgment of an event while downplaying its
significance or seriousness, attempting to diminish the perceived impact.
● Fabricated Lie - A deliberate fabrication of false events or a fictional narrative, with the intention to mislead and
deceive others.
● White/Benign Lie - A falsehood told with good intentions, often to maintain harmony in relationships or spare
someone's feelings without causing harm.
● Red Lie - A form of misinformation, typically used for propaganda purposes to manipulate opinions or perceptions on
a larger scale.
● Black Lie - A deceitful act designed to dishonor or discredit others, often driven by malicious intent and aimed at
tarnishing reputations.
● Malicious/Judicial Lie- A falsehood deliberately told with the purpose of misleading or obstructing justice,
potentially impacting legal proceedings.
● Self-Deception -A form of deception where an individual distorts or denies reality to convince themselves of a false
narrative.
Types of Liars

● Panic Liars - Individuals who resort to lying out of fear or desperation to avoid humiliation and the potential
consequences of their actions.
● Occupational Liars - People who are paid to deceive, often as part of their profession or job responsibilities.

● Tournament Liars - Individuals who view lying as a challenge or competition, engaging in deceptive behavior for the
thrill of outsmarting others.
● Psychopathic Liars - Individuals lacking a conscience, who lie effortlessly and habitually without remorse or
empathy for the impact on others.
 ● Ethnological Liars - Individuals who are trained or conditioned not to reveal certain information, often as part of
cultural norms or specific societal expectations.
● Pathological Liars -Individuals suffering from a mental health condition that impairs their ability to distinguish
between truth and falsehood, leading to compulsive lying.
● Black Liars -Those who enjoy pretending and are known for their hypocritical behavior, often adopting deceit as a
means of manipulation or personal gain.

III. EARLY METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

The concept of ordeal dates back to ancient times, representing one of the earliest methods of crime detection. This
technique involved subjecting an individual to a challenging obstacle or trial, sometimes extending to the use of third-degree
methods for interrogation.

Ayur Vida, a Hindu manuscript on science and health originating around 500 B.C., stands as an early reference to a
method employed for detecting deception in ancient times.

Trial by Combat - A historical method utilized to resolve accusations when witnesses or confessions were absent. In this
process, two disputing parties engaged in single combat to settle the dispute.

Trial by Ordeal - A judicial practice where the guilt or innocence of the accused was determined by exposing them to an
unpleasant or perilous experience. In contemporary terms, it can be likened to the utilization of the "3rd degree" during
interrogations. The term "ordeal" finds its roots in the Medieval Latin word "Dei Indicum," translating to "a miraculous
decision." This practice was employed as a means of divine intervention to ascertain guilt or innocence.

TYPES OF ORDEAL

1. Ordeal of Heat and Fire - This ancient trial involved the suspect walking a prescribed distance, often around nine
feet, over red-hot plowshares or holding a red-hot iron. The intense physical challenge was employed to determine
guilt or innocence.
2. Ordeal of Hot Water - In this ordeal, water was boiled, and the accused had to retrieve a stone from the boiling
water. The depth to which the stone had to be retrieved varied based on the number of accusations, with different
levels indicating different degrees of guilt.
3. Ordeal of Boiling Oil- Practiced in certain villages in India and parts of West Africa, this ordeal subjected the
accused to the dangers of boiling oil to ascertain guilt or innocence.
4. Red Hot Iron Ordeal- This method required the accused to touch their tongue to an extremely hot metal nine times,
or until burned. In some regions, a hot needle was used instead, teasing the lips until they bled, signaling guilt.
5. Ordeal of Cold Water -With roots in the Code of Ur-Nammu and the Code of Hammurabi, this ordeal involved
submerging an individual accused of sorcery in a stream. Survival was considered an indication of innocence, and
historically, this was associated with witch hunts in the 16th and 17th centuries.
6. Ordeal of Rice Chewing - An accused individual was required to chew rice, clergy bread, or cheese. Failing to
swallow even a single grain of concentrated rice resulted in a verdict of guilt.
7. Ordeal of Red Water (Food and Drink Ordeal) - In this method, the accused had to fast and run for twelve hours,
followed by consuming a cap of rice and drinking a dark-colored water, often up to a gallon.
8. Ordeal of the Cross -The accuser and accused stood on either side of a cross, extending their hands horizontally. The
first to lower their arms lost, determining guilt.
9. Test of the Axe - In ancient Greece, a suspended axe was spun in the center of a group of suspects. Divine providence
was believed to guide the axe, pointing to the guilty party when it stopped.
10. Test of the Candle - Utilized in Burma, both accuser and accused were given identical candles. The duration the
candle burned determined the truth, with the longer-burning candle indicating innocence.
11. Donkey’s Tail (Ash Tail) Ordeal - Accused individuals selected a cage with a donkey, striking it with a donkey’s
tail. The first to make the donkey cry was adjudged guilty.
12. The "Hereditary Sieve" Ordeal - Beans were thrown into a sieve as each suspect's name was called. If the bean
jumped out, the person named was considered innocent; if it remained, they were deemed the thief.
13. Ordeal by Balance - Practiced in the Institute of Vishnu, India, this ordeal involved placing the accused on one end of
a balance scale and counterbalancing them. If the accused weighed lighter after stepping out, they were acquitted.
14. Ordeal by Cornsnead - In China and Alexandria, an accused person was given dry rice or bread to swallow. If they
did not choke, they were considered not guilty.
15. Test of the Eucharist - Practiced in European countries, it was believed that the Angel Gabriel would prevent the
accused from swallowing the offered food.
16. Ordeal of the Bier - Practiced in Australia and European countries, this ordeal involved a corpse on a bier of bough.
The belief was that the corpse would touch the sorcerer who used witchcraft to kill the victim.
17. Ordeal of the Needle - In Wanaka, East Africa, a red-hot needle was drawn through the lips of the accused. If no
blood flowed, they were considered innocent.
18. Trial of the Waxen Shirt - Accused individuals wore a waxen shirt, and if it melted, they were deemed guilty.
Countries Practicing Ordeals

1. Burma - Adjudged based on the speed of a burning candle.

2. Borneo - Determined by the movement of shellfish exposed to irritating fluid.
3. Greece - Guilt determined by the alignment with a spinning axe.
4. Nigeria - Ordeal involved piercing the tongue with a greased feather or pouring corrosive liquid into the eyes.
5. Europe and early United States - Used in witchcraft trials, where the accused's buoyancy in water determined guilt
or innocence.

IV. METHODS OF DETECTING DECEPTION

Deception detection is a complex field that involves analyzing verbal and non-verbal cues to assess whether someone
is being truthful or deceptive. Various methods have been developed over the years to enhance the accuracy of deception
detection.

1. Word Association Test - Francis Galton initiated the use of word association in detecting deception. This test
presents a series of words to individual respondents, and for each word, participants are instructed to respond with the
first word that comes to mind.
2. Psychological Stress Evaluation (Voice Stress Analysis) - Also known as voice stress analysis, this method utilizes a
machine developed in the late 1960s to detect "guilt revealing laryngeal microtremors" associated with stress and
lying.
3. Administration of Truth Serum - Involves the use of substances like Scopolamine, sodium amytal, and sodium
pentothal to induce truthfulness by lowering inhibitions.
4. Hypnosis - Utilizes hypnosis to induce a state of heightened responsiveness to suggestions, enabling the elicitation of
truth from an individual. However, its use is restricted to cases of clear amnesia.
5. BrainWave Fingerprinting -Developed by neuroscientist Lawrence Farewell, this technique, patented in 1995,
involves the observation of different brain regions lighting up when individuals tell the truth or lie.
6. Iris Analysis - Used for assessing attention and alertness, detecting deception through the analysis of iris patterns.
7. Thermal Imaging - Measures changes in regional facial blood flow, particularly around the eyes, to detect signs of
deception.
8. Polygraph Examination - The polygraph, commonly known as a lie detector, measures physiological responses such
as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory rate while a person answers questions.
9. Statement Analysis - Analyzing the content and structure of a person's statement to identify inconsistencies or
linguistic patterns associated with deception.
10. Micro-Expressions - Observing rapid facial expressions that last for a fraction of a second to identify genuine
emotions that may contradict verbal statements.
11. Cognitive Load Theory - Assessing the cognitive load involved in constructing deceptive stories, as liars often
experience higher cognitive demands than truth-tellers.

It's important to note that while these methods are discussed in various scientific contexts, their reliability and ethical
considerations may vary. Additionally, legal and professional standards should be taken into account when employing these
techniques.

V. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY OF LYING

Psychophysiology

The study of the functions of the human nervous system and the bodily reactions of a person as influenced by his mental
responses to specific stimuli.

Fear of Detection

It is the fear of detection as well as the consequences of being detected that causes the sympathetic system to activate in order
to prepare the body to meet the emergency.

Stimulus - refers to any force or motion coming from the environment and which reaches an organism that has the tendency to
arouse.

Nervous System- it is the activator of the body system it sends out signals to all the body parts for a specific response.

Central Nervous System - is composed of the brain and the spinal cord. The central nervous system is responsible for
memory, intelligence and thoughts. It also receives information from the body therefore it enables the body to cry or walk or
even understand and speak languages.
Left Hemisphere Right Hemisphere
Verbal competence logical Nonverbal areas
Speaking, reading, thinking and reasoning Comprehension, spatial relationship, drawing, music, emotion,
Processes info in sequence Processes info as a whole intuitive
One piece of data at a time

Peripheral Nervous System

All other nerve ways are within the peripheral nervous system which separates into two:
The Somatic Nervous System and the Autonomic Nervous System.

1. Somatic Nervous System - is involved with voluntary comparative over skeletal muscles
2.Autonomic Nervous System - involved those involuntary physiological functions of the body and has considerable
psychological impact as well. Autonomic Nervous System is the main effector of the body that is found at the center of the
brain. It is mainly concerned with the regulation of the deviation from a particular standard within very fine limits. The central
control of the ANS is called the Hypothalamus which is a group of nerve cells that controls the entire endocrine hormonal
system. It controls all the involuntary reflexes that we cannot control such as heartbeat, breathing and blood pressure.

Two divisions of Autonomic Nervous System

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS) - the house keeping or braking system. It is responsible for conserving energy
and making sure necessary bodily functions. It restrains sympathetic arousal and attempt to maintain homeostatic
(homeostasis) normal.

2. Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS) – is our emergency, or action system. A system which causes the sudden and
dramatic change.

Homeostasis - is complex interactive regulatory system by which the body strives to maintain a state of internal equilibrium.

Hypothalamus - is a series of groups of nerve cells of the brain that control the entire endocrine-hormonal system.

Fight, flight, freeze - are the three stereotypic behavioral responses to threat, sometimes simply called F3. The physiological
responses concomitant to these behaviors are the same, namely mobilizing bodily resources for an expenditure of energy, and
narrowing attention and focus to the features of the threat. When the sympathetic nervous system is activated, it immediately
prepares the body for fight or flight by causing the adrenal glands to secret hormones known as epinephrine and
norepinephrine and the blood will be distributed to those areas of the body where it is most needed to meet the emergency.

Fight & Flight Response

You perceive the sensory stimulus 🡪 The adrenaline send epinephrine and nor- epinephrine 🡪 Hormones activates

sympathetic nervous system 🡪Produces a state of arousal or alertness that provides the body with the energy to act, the pupils
dilate, the heart beats faster and breathing speeds up.

Epinephrine (Adrenaline) - is the hormonal stimulator of the sympathetic nervous system. It acts to constrict peripheral
blood flow, raise blood pressure, increase cardiac activity, promote metabolic activity through the release of glucose, and
inhibit digestive processes.

Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) - is a hormone secreted by the adrenal gland, it works alongside with
epinephrine/adrenaline to give the body sudden energy in times of stress, known as the "fight or flight" response.

Physiological Response to Lie

Verbal symptoms
- Manner of answering
- Repetition of questions
- Incomplete statements or fragment sentence
- Overly polite
- Swearing truthfulness of assertions
- Vague response
- Use of I don’t remember not that I remember expression is often used by lying suspect
- Assertiveness
- Inconsistencies
- Slip of the tongue
- Tirades
 - Pause
- Speed of speech
- A peculiar tone of voice
- A forced laugh
Non-verbal symptoms of deception
- Manipulators
- Breathing
- Sweating and flushed face
- Dryness of the mouth
- Frequent swallowing
- Facial muscle twitching
- Gaze aversion
- Fidgeting, tapping or drumming fingers on the chair
- Swinging of legs or legs over the other
- Unnecessary movement of hands and feet such as scratching, nail biting, thumb or finger sucking
Thru facial expression
- Blushing paling or sweating
- Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of the eyeballs and elevation of upper eyelids
- Squinting of the eyes
- Twitching of the lips
- Excessive winking of the eyes
- Failure to look the inquirer straight into the eye
- Excessive activity of Adam’s apple
- Quivering of nose or nostrils
- Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another
Polygraphy

Key Terms

7.

TRIPOD FOUNDATION OF POLYGRAPH

1. Psychological Leg Premise = states that specific nervous system component whose stimulation can thus be diagnosed
are so stimulated by the involuntary and emotional processes of the individual who is continuously attempting concealment of
deception especially if that individual has something at stake and the prevailing circumstances lead him to believe that
exposure to deception is quite possible although undesirable.

2. Physiological Leg Premise = that among the physiological responses that may be recorded are those that automatically
occur only following the stimulation of specific nervous component system

3. Mechanical Leg Premise = polygraph is capable of making graphic record containing reliable information regarding
physiological responses of the subject.

Ultimate objective of conducting Polygraph examination

Admission = is a statement of facts, partial acknowledgement of guilt and usually given with some justification or
exemplification in admitting.
Confession = direct acknowledgement of guilt or a statement of guilt.

Specific Objectives
• Obtain additional investigation leads to the facts of the case/offenses
• Ascertain if a person is telling the truth
• Locate the fruits or tools of the crime or whereabouts of wanted persons
• Identify other persons involved
• Obtain valuable information from reluctant witness
• Eliminate innocent suspects

Uses of Polygraphy
• Aids in investigation
• Speeds up processing of investigation
• Eliminates innocent suspects
• Pre-employment screening
• Honesty test (Periodic test)

Is Polygraph Technique Accurate?

95%-98% accuracy

Limitations of the Polygraph Technique

• It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for investigation.
• It is not a lie detector but only a scientific diagnostic instrument.
• It does not determine facts, it records responses to that which the subject knows to be true.
• It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
• The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit the examiner to prepare a complete set of
suitable questions.
• The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.
• No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person will be considered guilty because he
refused to take the test.
• A test will not be given until the accusations have explained with the subject.
• No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person.
• No examination will be conducted on unfit subjects.

Factors that may affect the result of a Polygraph Examination

The Examiner

Examiner should be an intelligent person, with reasonably good educational background preferably a college degree with
understanding in human nature.

The Subject

Three (3) General Types of Subject – suspect, the victim and the witness

Persons not recommended to take the polygraph examination

• Persons who have extreme nervousness

• persons who have physiological abnormalities such as high blood pressure/ hypertension, heart disease, respiratory
disorder, toothaches, severe headaches and any painful illness
• Persons with mental abnormalities
• Unresponsive persons such as those who suffer mental fatigue or under the influence of drugs of alcohol
• Pregnant women
• Persons below 18 years of age

The examinee must have taken a rest with at least four to five hours sleep before taking the test. He/She should not be drunk or
has not taken any prohibited drugs or medication because it will suppress the normal activity of the Central Nervous System. It
is also very essential that the examinee must be free from any physical and mental abuse prior to the test. The examinee, who
is pregnant of 8-9 months, is also discouraged from taking the test; and parental consent is needed for minor examinees.

The Examination Room

Lie detector test should be conducted in a quiet private room. A room with none of the usual police surroundings and with no
distractions within the subject's view. A room without any windows at all.

The interrogation room should contain no ornaments, pictures or other objects which would distract the attention of the person
being tested or interviewed. A room free from noise such as the ringing of a telephone or the conversation of persons outside
the examination room. The presence of other officers or other spectators in the room itself may produce disturbances and
distractions which will interfere with a satisfactory diagnosis of deception; hence this should be avoided. Adequate ventilation
is needed with comfortable temperature. Lightings should not be excessive. There should be an examination room adjacent.

Other Considerations

• Do not wait until the last minute to ask a person to take the test.
• Do not tell the subject everything that you know about the offense or about him.
• Do not fail to investigate the case before you ask a person to take the test.
• If for some reason, it must be temporarily taken, the investigator must continue investigating the case.
• Do not depend on mass screening of possible suspects to produce a real or the guilty one.
• Do not tell anyone that the lie detector will decide whether a person is guilty or not. The court will make the decision
• If the test indicates that the person did not tell the truth or if the person confesses after the test, do not think that the
investigation is over.
• Polygraph examination normally takes from 1 to 3 hours.

The Instrument

3. Diastolic blood pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the low pressure to the closing of the
valves and heart relaxed.
4. Dicrotic notch = refers to the short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle of the diastolic stem.
5. Electrodermal response = it refers to the human body phenomenon in which the skin changes resistance electrically
upon the application of certain external stimuli. Also referred to a Psycho galvanic skin reflex or galvanic skin response.
6. 17. Systolic Blood pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve caused by the contraction of the
heart, valves are open and blood is rushing into the arteries.

The condition of the Instrument and the attachment may affect the result of a polygraph examination. Before conducting the
exam make sure that the instrument is calibrated, well maintained and is fully functional.
Physiological Phenomena as Basis of Detecting Deception
Blood Pressure and Heart Beat Frequency

• Systolic or High Pressure

• Diastolic or Low Pressure
The rate and force of the heartbeat is regulated by two sets of nerves
a. Sympathetic Set
b. The Cranial Autonomic System
Breathing as a Means of Detecting Deception
Two steps in Breathing
• Inspiration
• Expiration
Factors affecting Breathing Rates
• Muscular exercise
• Anticipation of Muscular Exercise
• Recalling mentally emotional experience
• Mental Activity
• Anxious Expectancy
• Shock
• Surprise
Electrodermal Response
• Normal Response
• Abnormal Response
• Machine Fright Response
• Physical Movement Response
• Outside Interference Response
• Mental tie up response
• Deception Response

Errors in Lie Detection

Nervousness or extreme emotional tension experienced by a subject who is telling the truth regarding the offense in question
but who is nevertheless affected by:

Physiological Abnormalities such as:

• Excessively high or excessively low blood pressure

• Diseases of the heart
• Respiratory Disorder

Mental Abnormalities such as:

• Feeblemindedness as idiots imbeciles or morons

• Psychosis or insanities as in manic-depressives, paranoids, schizophrenia, paretic, etc.
• Psychoneurosis and Psychopathy, as among the so-called “peculiar” or emotionally unstable persons.
• Unresponsiveness in a lying or guilty subject because of:
• No fear of detection
• Apparent inability to consciously control response by means of certain mental sets of attitudes.
• A condition of “subshock” or adrenal exhaustion at the time of the test.
• Rationalization of the crime in advance of the test to such an extent that lying about the offense arouses little or no
emotional disturbance
• Extensive interrogation prior to the test
• Attempt to “beat the machine” by controlled breathing pattern or by muscular flexing
• Unobserved application of muscular pressure which produces ambiguities and misleading indications in the blood
pressure tracing

Barriers to Polygraph Examination

• Pathological Liar
• Mental cases
• Persons under the influence of intoxicating liquor
• Narcotics related cases
• Various heart and other organic troubles

MAJOR COMPONENTS OF POLYGRAPH

1. Pneumograph = designed to detect and record changes in respiration of the subject which consists of the ff:
■ Rubber Convoluted Tube = about 10 inches corrugated rubber attached to the body of the subject.
■ Beaded Chain = used to lock the rubber convoluted tube.
■ Recording Pen Unit = consisting of two 5 inches recording pen

■ Centering Knob = used to center the pen

■ Sensitivity Knob = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
■ Vent = used to release excess pressure from the system
■ Pneumo Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the corrugated tube and moves
the pen to record
the reactions on the chart

2. Cardiosphygmograph = Designed to detect changes in the cardiovascular activity of the subject. It consists of:
a. Blood Pressure Cuff = attached to the upper right arm of the subject, above the brachial artery.
b. Sphygmamonometer = used to indicate the amount of air pressure inflated to the system. Usually about 60 mm of
mercury for male subject.
c. Recording Pen Unit = five (5) inches length
d. Air Pump/Pump Bulb = designed to supply air to the system
e. Cardio Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the cuff and moves the pen to
record the reactions on the chart
f. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
g. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on the chart
h. Vent = Used to release excess pressure from the system

Cardiosphygmograph provides a record of the following:

1. Relative Blood Volume/Pressure = is the changes in the average value of the cardio tracing (waveform) with respect to
a baseline.
a. Diastolic Blood Pressure = refers to the downward blood pressure representing the low pressure to the closing of the
valves and heart relaxed.
b. Systolic Blood Pressure = the upward blood pressure as the apex of the curve caused by the contraction of the heart,
valves are open and blood is rushing into the arteries.
2. Pulse Amplitude = is the changes in pulse amplitude (tracing height) independent of baseline.
3. Pulse Rate = changes in heart rate or time between pulses.
4. Dicrotic Notch = changes in relative position of the dicrotic notch or pulse waveform
= short horizontal notch in a cardio-tracing located at the middle of the diastolic stem

3. Galvanograph = designed to detect changes in skin resistance of the subject. Consists of:
a. Finger Electrode Assembly consists of:
a.1. finger Electrode Plate and Retainer Bond = attached to the index and ring finger of the subject.
a.2. Connecting Plug = attached the system to the instrument

b. Recording Pen Unit = usually 7 inches

c. Amplifier Unit = designed to support the galvanometer in converting electrical to mechanical current.
d. Sensitivity Control = used to adjust the desired size of tracings
e. Centering Control = designed to center the pen on the chart
f. GSR Module = located inside the instrument that receives the reactions detected by the finger electrodes and moves
the pen to record the reactions on the chart
How does it Records?
Galvanic Skin Response = is the change in the body’s resistance to the passage of a minute electrical sensing current.
The electrodes electrically connect the subject to the instrument. These provide a
5 microamp sensing current to the subject, far below the threshold of feeling.

Keymograph = serves as the paper feed mechanism of the polygraph machine

= It is a motor that pulls or drives the cart paper under the recording pen simultaneously at the rate of five seconds per vertical
chart division or twelve divisions in one minute run.
a. Chart = approximately 100 ft. rolled graph paper with approximately ¼ inch horizontal division and ½ inch vertical
division equivalent to 5 seconds run
b. Cutter Bar = used to cut the paper at the end of the test
c. Rubber Roller = the one responsible for pulling the paper out of the machine.
d. Pen Table = flat portion where the pen write on the chart.
e. Paper Rail Guide = serves as the security for the unnecessary movement of the chart paper or to ensure the paper’s
forward movement without shaking.
f. Synchronous Motor = runs the chart paper at the uniform rate speed regardless of the voltage change.

Pen and Inking System = the one that provides for the permanent record of the test
Capillary Ink = a water based ink intended for polygraph instruments

DEVELOPMENT OF POLYGRAPH

Daniel Defoe = wrote an essay entitled, “An Effectual Scheme for the Preventing of Street Robberies and Suppressing all other
Disorders of the Night”

Angelo Mosso = In 1878, science came to the aid of the truth seeker through the research of an Italian psychologist Angelo
Mosso. He made used of an instrument called plethysmograph in his research on emotion and fear and its influence on the
heart and respiration.
= developed a scientific cradle

Cesare Lombroso = In 1895, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian Criminologist and tutor of Angelo Mosso, published the second
edition of his book entitled “L’Homme Criminel” which he relates the used of hydrosphygmograph during interrogation of
suspects. He called it blood pressure pulse test.
= he is considered as the first person to conceive the idea of lie detection and the first to apply the technique in actual criminal
suspects

Francis Galton = in 1879, introduced the Word Association Test using series of irrelevant questions and relevant question
separated in time.

B. Sticker = believed that the origin of the galvanic skin phenomenon was under the influence of the exciting mental
impressions and that the will has no effect upon it.
= he made the earliest application of psychogalvanometer to forensic problems.

Sir James Mackenzie = an English clinician and cardiologist, constructed the Clinical Polygraph in 1892, an instrument to be
used for medical examinations with the capability to simultaneously record undulated line tracings of the vascular pulses
(radial, venous and arterial), by way of a stylus onto a revolving drum of smoked paper.
In 1906, Sir James Mackenzie refined his clinical polygraph of 1892 when he devised the Clinical Ink Polygraph with the help
of Lancashire watchmaker, Sebastian Shaw. This instrument used a clockwork mechanism for the paper-rolling and time-
marker movements and it produced ink recordings of physiological functions that were easier to acquire and to interpret.

Otto S. Veraguth = he is said to be the first person to use the term Psychogalvanic Reflex. Veraguth was the first scientist to
use the word association test with galvanometer.
= in 1907, he described his observation on galvanic phenomena and emotions that there was an ascending galvanometer curve
during the presentation of relevant stimuli versus the rest curve on non-crucial stimuli.

Vittorio Benussi = in March 1913, he presented a paper before the second meeting of the Italian Society for Psychology in
Rome where he described how he record the subject’s breathing patter using a Marey Pneumograph which he noted the
changes in inspiration-expiration ratio during deception.
= he also included recording of heart rate and blood pressure curve in detection of deception and probably the first person to
record more than one physiological response.

Dr. William M. Marston = in 1915 was credited as the creator of the systolic blood- pressure test used in an attempt to detect
deception during questioning, and using a standard blood pressure cuff and stethescope, requiring repeated inflation of the
pressure cuff to obtain readings at intervals during examination. This was called Discontinuous Technique.

Harold Burtt = In 1918, Burtt suggested that the changes in respiration were an indication of deception.
= He was able to determine that the changes in respiration were of less value in the detection of deception than the changes in
blood pressure

John A. Larson = encouraged by August Vollmer of the Berkeley Police Department to conduct a research on deception.
= Cardio-Pneumo Psychogram was Larson’s first instrument which was borrowed from Dr. Robert Jessel and was invented by
Earl Bryant
= in 1921, Earl Bryant made an instrument for Larson in which he used a breadboard as a base and from that it became in the
industry as Breadboard Polygraph – capable of recording continually and simultaneously the respiration and cardiovascular
activities.
= today he is known as the Father of Scientific Lie Detection and at the same time the Father of Polygraph

Leonarde Keeler = in 1926, he made a modification of Larson’s instrument. He developed that metal bellows and kymograph
that pulled a chart paper at a constant speed under recording pens from a roll of chart located inside the instrument.
= in 1938, 1938, Keeler included the Psychogalvanometer (PGR), a third measuring component of his instrument which was
also known as Galvanic Skin Reflex (GSR) invented by Italian Physiologist Galvani in 1791.
= credited as the creator on Relevant-Irrelevant Technique.
= today Keeler is known as the Father of Modern Polygraphy.

Ruckmick = in 1936, the term Psychogalvanic Reflex used by Veraguth was repudiated by Ruckmick and proposed the term
Electrodermal Response.

John E. Reid = in 1950, he developed the Control Question which consist of a known lie and incorporated it into the
relevant/irrelevant technique.
= he developed a movement or activity sensor a means of recording arm and leg movements
= Reid also developed the silent answer test and guilt-complex test to be administered to overly responsive examinee

Cleve Backster = developed the psychological set theory and the anticlimax dampening concept.
= he also developed and introduced the Quantification System of Chart Analysis (Numerical Scoring) which permits the
examiner to score the charts numerically according to standard rules.

Richard O. Arther = introduced the Arther II polygraph instrument which contains a stimulus marker capable of recording the
beginning and ending of question and the moment the examinee answered.
= credited as the creator of Stimulus Marker
= developed an instrument with two Galvanic Skin Resistance
Charles Samson Fere- 1888
Discovered that electrodermal response is caused by an increase in the action of the heart and vital energy converted
with human emotions
Jacques D’Arsonval
External Friction Electricity is generated by the body
Sweat Glands in the body store electricity and other times discharged them.
Paul Wilhelm and Donald Burns
Lie detector specialist in Michigan City, Indiana, USA
Electronic Psychometric
Electro-dermal response as basis for lie detection
95% accurate

Computerized Polygraph Instrument = in 1992, the polygraph made its official entrance into the computer age
FORMULATION OF TEST QUESTIONS

General Rules in formulating Test Questions

■ Questions must be simple and direct
■ They must not involve legal terminologies
■ They must be as simple and as short as possible
■ Answerable by Yes or No.
■ They must not be in a form of accusatorial.
■ Their meaning must be clear and they must be phrased in a language that the subject can easily understand.
■ They must never contain inference which presupposes knowledge on the part of the subject.
■ They must refer to one offense only
■ They must refer to one element of the offense.
■ They must not contain inference to ones religion, race or belief.

1. Irrelevant Question = a question that has no connection with the matter under investigation and deals with known facts
that the subject cannot be denied. It is designed to be emotionally neutral to examinees and usually answerable by “yes’. Also
called Neutral Question.

Characteristics of Irrelevant
1. It has no connection to the matter under investigation.
2. No threat to subject (usually).
3. Neither innocent nor guilty suspects have reason to lie.
4. Usually about the suspect’s background.
5. Generally used at the beginning of polygraph technique to establish a ‘norm’ for examinee, or throughout the
examination as needed to reestablish norm pattern.

Purposes of Irrelevant Question

1. Establish the professional authority in the room that means, the examiner asks questions and the suspect answers.
2. It allows the examiner to assess the subject’s normal behavior for this heightened emotional situation.
3. Allows the examiner to identify something he has in common with the subject, to establish rapport.
4. It minimizes resistance.

2. Symptomatic Question = is designed to ensure that the examiner will not ask un- reviewed questions or that the
examinee is not afraid that the examiner will ask un- reviewed questions.
Examples:
■ Do you believe me when I promised not to ask a question in this test I have not gone over word for word?
■ Even though I promised I would not, are you afraid I will ask a question in this test I have not gone over word for
word?

3. Sacrifice Relevant Question = it introduces the relevant question to the subject

= designed to absorb the response generated by the introduction of relevant question in the series
Example:
■ Regarding the (matter under investigation), are you willing to answer the questions truthfully?

4. Relevant Question = a question deals with the matter under investigation. Color coded red in computerized
instruments. It is designed to generate reactions from deceptive subject.

Types of Relevant Question

a. Primary Relevant (Strong Relevant) = addresses the primary issue or direct involvement of the subject on the matter
under question. It is use primarily with the single-issue examination.

■ Ex. Did you take that missing money?

b. Secondary Relevant (Weak Relevant) = deals with the physical acts that support
the primary issue. This is usually use in multi-issue examination.
■ Ex. Did you participate in the theft of that missing money?
c. Guilty Knowledge = designed to probe whether the subject possesses information
regarding the identity of the offender or the facts of the case under question.
■ Ex. Do you know who took that missing money?
d. Evidence Connecting Question = test question in which the examinee is asked
about a particular piece of physical evidence that would incriminate the guilty person. It could be items left at the crime scene
by the perpetrator or stolen property.
■ Ex. Do you know where any of that missing money is right now?
5. Comparison Question = a question which is the same in nature with that of the relevant question but broad in scope.
= is used for comparative purposes with the relevant question.
= designed to generate reactions from truthful subject.

Types of Comparison Question

a. Directed Lie Comparison Question (DLC) = a comparison question in which the examinee is instructed by the
examiner to answer the questions untruthfully.
Some examiners actually get admission to comparison questions and then instruct the examinee to lie to that question when it
is asked.
b. Probable Lie Comparison Question (PLC) = a question to which it is likely that the examinee is untruthful with his
answer.
= PLC questions are broad in scope and usually based on actions categorically similar to that of the issue under investigation

Types of Probable Lie

a. Inclusive = a comparison question which include the relevant time period under investigation. It was originally
designed by Reid.
= this type of question usually starts with the phrase: “In your entire life,…..”. Also termed as inclusionary.
b. Exclusive = a comparison question separated in time, place and category from the relevant question. It was introduced
by Cleve Backster. He believes that this prevents the guilty suspect from perceiving the comparison question as an ambiguous
relevant question.

Example:
■ During the first years of your life, did you ever ?
■ Prior to 2009, did you ever ?
■ While in college ?
■ Between the ages of & , did you ever ?
Types of Polygraph Technique/Test
1. General Question Test = consist of series of relevant, irrelevant control questions in a planned order. Developed by
John E. Reid

2. Relevant/Irrelevant Test = consists primarily of series of irrelevant questions and relevant question pertaining to the
crime under investigation. Developed by Keeler.

3. Peak of Tension Test = consist of only one relevant and a series of irrelevant questions.
= resemble, in every general way, the card test, for it consist essentially of the asking of a series of question in which only one
has any bearing upon the matter under investigation.
= padding questions before and after the relevant questions.

Two Types of POT Test

■ Known Solution Peak of Tension Test (KSPOT) = is used to determine whether the examinee is aware of details of a
crime that have been kept from the general public and would presumably only be known to the perpetrator of the
crime or those with incriminating knowledge.
■ Searching Peak of Tension Test (SPOT) = is used to determine details of a crime that are not known to officials, such
as the location of an unrecovered body, but would be known to a participant in the crime.

4. Card test / Acquaintance Test / Stimulation Test = the subject is presented with seven (7) previously numbered cards
face down.
= he will be instructed to take one, look at it and return it with the rest of the cards.
= the examiner will shuffle the cards and each card will be shown to him, with the instruction that he will answer “NO” to all
cards , even if the one being shown to him is the one he has seen earlier.

5. Guilt Complex Test = used primarily for overly responsive subjects.

= a totally fictitious incident but a similar nature to the matter being investigated and make him believe it is real.
= The purpose is to compare the response with those response made concerning the actual matter under investigation

6. Silent Answer Test = Subject is instructed not to give any verbal answer, the subject will only answer in his mind.

7. Comparison Question Test (CQT) = the reactions on the control and relevant questions are compared via numerical
scoring
Polygraph Examiner = is one who is capable of detecting deception and verifying the truthfulness of statement through the use
of a polygraph instrument.
= is someone who has successfully completed formal education and training in conducting polygraph examination and is
certified by his agency to conduct such examination.

Subject = is any person who undergoes polygraph examination.

Polygraph Examination = a process that encompasses all activities that take place between a polygraph examiner and an
examinee during a specific series of interactions. For a valid polygraph examination to exist, respiration, EDA, and
Cardiovascular activity must be monitored and recorded.

Two Types of Polygraph Exam

1. Mixed Issue Exam = multiple-issue polygraph testing like screening of applicants or audit of employees or persons
with security clearances.
2. Diagnostic Exam = a test which involves specific case investigation.

Types of Diagnostic Exam

1. Single Issue Exam = a test which inquires direct involvement of subject into a specific case under question.
2. Mult-facet Exam = test format in which the relevant questions are targeted toward different elements of the same
crime.

Stages in the Conduct of the Polygraph Test

■ Initial Interview with the Investigator

1. Pre-test Interview = an interview conducted by the polygraph examiner designed to prepare or condition the subject
for the actual test. It usually last for about 20 – 30 minutes
a. Determining the subject physical, mental and psychological suitability to undergo the test
a.1. the subject should avoid taking drugs at least 12 hrs before the test
a.2. the subject if female should not be pregnant
a.3. the subject should not be hungry
a.4. the subject should not be physically or emotional abuse
a.5. the subject should not be suffering high blood or hypertension.
b. Informing the subject of his Constitutional Rights (if the examiner is a law enforcement officer)
c. Taking of the subject consent
d. Taking of the subject personal data
e. Discuss with the subject the crime/issue under investigation
f. Preparing the subject for the test – administration of stimulation test

2. ln-Test (Actual Test) = is the actual conduct of the test administered by a polygraph examiner

Conditions of the Room

■ It should be spacious for two persons
■ Well lighted
■ Well ventilated

■ Sound Proof
■ Not decorated
3. Post-test Interview or Interrogation = is an interview or an interrogation administered by a polygraph examiner after
the test designed to obtain confession or admission by the subject. = interview is conducted when the reactions indicate an
innocent response and very cooperative to the examiner. = interrogation is conducted when the reactions show sign of
deception and being uncooperative to open an information.

Chart markings = are annotations of the physiologic tracings to denote stimulus (question) onset and offset, examinee’s
answer, question number, question label, artifacts, and other details important to the interpretation of the physiological data.

Two Types Chart Markings

1. Primary Markings = these are markings which indicate the beginning and end of examination as well as the questions
and answers of the subject. These are usually placed at the bottom or top of the polygraph chart

a. X – it indicates the start of the test. The examiner informs the subject that the test is about to begin.

b. I I – is a stimulus mark. The first vertical line marks when the examiner starts asking question. Second vertical line
marks when the examiner finishes asking question.

c. + - a positive sign which indicates that the subject answers the question with “yes”. This also indicates the period when the
subject answers the question and usually followed by a “number” indicating the order number of question, example
+3, +4, +5….)

d. – a negative sign indicating that the subject answers the stimulus with “no”. This also indicates the period when the
subject answers the question and usually followed by a “number”.

e. XX – indicates the end of test.

2. Secondary Markings = are markings which are placed only if the examinee does something which will cause the
physiological tracings to distort. These markings are usually placed below the affected tracing.

a. M – Movement
b. T – Talking
c. DB – Deep Breath
d. C – Cough

e. CT – Clear Throat
f. SW – Swallow
g. SNF – Sniff
h. Y – Yawn
i. SZ – Sneeze
j. LGH – Laugh
k. SLP – Sleep
l. B – Belch
m. OSN – Outside Noise
n. ISN – Inside Noise
o. EE – Examiner Error
p. WRQ – Will Repeat Question
q. MI – Movement Instruction
r. TI – Talking Instruction
s. AI – Answering Instruction
t. BI – Breathing Instruction
u. WU – Wake-Up
v. TDB – Take Deep Breath

INTERPRETATION OF POLYGRAPH DATA

Important Terms to Consider

■ . Specific response = refers to the response given by the subject which considered a deviation from the normal tracing
or norms of the subject.
■ Normal response = refers to any activity or inhibition of a previous activity of an organism or part of the organism
resulting from stimulation.
■ Analysis Spot = The relevant and control questions that are actually evaluated
during spot analysis.
■ Artifact = A change in an examinee’s physiological pattern that is not attributable to a reviewed test question. It
includes examinee’s movements during the examination.
■ Blind chart Analysis = Evaluation of PDD recordings without the benefit of extrapolygraphic information, such as
subject behavior, case facts, pretest admissions, base rates of deception, etc
■ Deception Indicated (DI) = A decision of DI in PDD means that (1) the physiological data are stable and interpretable,
and (2) the evaluation criteria
used by the examiner led him to conclude that the examinee is not wholly truthful to the relevant issue.
■ Exosomatic = Something generated from outside the body. Skin resistance is exosomatic measures because electrical
current is applied from outside sources to detect the electrodermal activity.
■ EDA Recovery Phase = The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing that occurs between the highest peak
and subsequent return to the pre-stimulus
or newly established baseline. The EDA recovery phase begins once the tracing ahs reached its highest peak.
■ EDA Rise Time = The physiological activity displayed in an EDA tracing
beginning with response onset and ending at the peak.
■ No Deception Indicated (NDI) = is a conventional term in PDD, NDI signifies that the polygraph test recordings are
stable and interpretable and the evaluation

criteria used by the examiner led him to conclude that the examinee was truthful to the relevant issue.
■ Test Data = The signal of interest that may consist of artifacts, recovery or examinee’s physiological response to
stimuli.
■ Test Data Analysis = Analysis of the psychohysiological response activity (time) displayed between response onset.
Typically, this is the time from response
onset until return to the pre-stimulus (phasic response) or a newly established baseline (tonic) response.
■ Recovery = A deviation in polygraph tracing attributable to a physiological phenomenon occurring as a compensatory
action after a response or an artifact.
■ Response = A physiological change that occurs following, and is attributable to the presentation of applied stimulus.
■ Phasic Response = A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is generally seen as an upward movement from
the baseline with subsequent return to the pre-stimulus or original baseline.
■ Tonic Response = A known origin response to a specific stimulus that is generally seen as a movement from the pre-
stimulus baseline and establishment of a new baseline without returning to the pre-stimulus baseline.
■ Response Amplitude = The displayed physiological activity reflected in a polygraph tracing occurring between
response onset and response peak (highest level from pre-stimulus baseline).
■ Response Duration = The physiological activity (time) displayed between
response onset and offset. Typically, this is the time from response onset until
return to the pre-stimulus baseline (phasic response) or a newly established baseline (tonic response).
■ Response Latency = The time between stimulus onset and response onset.
■ Response Onset = The first indication of change from the pre-stimulus level of physiological activity to an applied
stimulus.
■ Response Onset Window = The period of time between stimulus onset (verbal presentation of question) and an
examinee’s verbal answer to that stimulus.
■ Spot Analysis = The procedure wherein each component tracing is separately evaluated by comparing the response of
a relevant question to the response of a comparison question.
■ Stimulus Onset = It is the beginning of the presentation of the first word of a question.
■ Tonic Level = It describes the examinee’s physiological response when resting. An examinee’s level of physiological
activity occurring prior to stimulus onset. This is sometimes referred to as the resting or baseline activity level.
■ Zone = A concept coined by Cleve Backster. A zone is a twenty to thirty-five seconds block of polygraph chart time
initiated by a question having a unique psychological focusing appeal to a predictable group of examinees

Two types of Chart Interpretation

■ Global Analysis
■ Numerical Scoring
■ Manual Numerical Scoring

■ Computer Scoring Algorithm

GLOBAL ANALYSIS
In global analysis, the examiner looks for significant reactions that occur repeatedly which is referred to as
“Conspecnificance”. Conspecnificance is the consistency of reaction to a specific question with significant magnitude
■ NUMERICAL SCORING
The numerical scoring is a method of rendering polygraph decisions that
are based exclusively on numeric values that have been assigned to physiological responses recorded during a structured
polygraph examination

ELEMENTS OF SCORING SYSTEM

1. Reaction Features = are raw physiological data that a polygraph examiner should look into the polygraph chart for
numerical interpretation. It can be scored using the seven position or three position rules. Only reactions on the relevant and
comparison questions are scored during interpretation.
2. Transformations = In transforming physiological data, combine observations of reactions to relevant and control
stimulus into a single value for each component and for each presentation of each of the target stimuli.
■ Red questions (relevant) are compared to Green question (control)
■ Assign a - score when there is a larger response to a relevant question
■ Assign a + score when there is a larger response to a control question
■ Different scoring systems used different scoring rules in assigning numerical value to particular reaction features on
the relevant and comparison questions.
3. Decision Rules = determines when data meet the criteria for inclusion in a particular category.
= final step in polygraph numerical scoring, producing decisions of Deception Indicated, No Deception Indicated, and
Inconclusive.
= artifacts such as deep breaths, coughs, movements, and physiological abnormalities (premature ventricular contractions)
affect the quality of tracings for scoring. All these should not be scored.

ACCURACY AND RELIABILITY OF POLYGRAPH RESULTS

■ Accuracy = the condition or quality of being true, correct, or exact
■ = refers to validity (state or quality of being well founded).
Types of Validity
■ Face Validity = opinion or consensus of experts
■ Content Validity = selection of pertinent issues of inquiry
■ Predictive Validity = ability to predict a future outcome
■ Concurrent Validity = ability to identify what is already known
■ Convergent Validity – new info coincide with extant info
■ Divergent Validity – new info separates extant ideas
■ Construct Validity – meaningful defined and understandable relationships (correlations) between various phenomena
■ Criterion Validity – accuracy of category decisions

■ Incremental Validity – professional decision accuracy improves with the use of additional information

Reliability = refers to stability or consistency of measurement. Reliability studies in PDD often examine the rate of decision
agreement among examiners on polygraph test charts.
Two Types of Reliability
1. Interrater reliability = denotes agreement among examiners
2. Intrarater agreement (test-retest reliability) = pertains to an examiner agreement with his own decisions when
evaluating the charts on different occasions.
Note:
Reliability is not the same as validity, which means accuracy. A technique cannot be more valid than it is reliable. A technique
can have high agreement without high accuracy, though the reverse is not true.

Goals of Polygraph Testing

■ Sensitivity = Ability to detect or notice the issue.
■ Specificity = Ability to reject non-involved cases.
Threshold of Accuracy According to American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM)
■ Ninety (90) Percent = for evidentiary polygraph examinations. Evidentiary polygraph examinations are those
conducted specifically for courtroom purposes.
■ Eighty (80) Percent = for investigative polygraph examination. Investigative polygraph examinations are used for non-
judicial purposes.
■ Both evidentiary and investigative examinations are permitted to an inconclusive rate of twenty (20) percent.

Result Errors
■ False Negative = refers to the failure to detect the presence of a particular event or item.
= in polygraphy refers to the incorrect decision that deception was not practiced by the examinee.
■ False Positive = is the false detection of something that is not actually present. In polygraphy
= it is the incorrect decision that deception was practiced by the examinee.

Validated Techniques and Scoring Systems (American Polygraph Association)

Characteristics of a Valid Technique
Test format that conforms to valid principles relating to: target selection, question formulations, and in-test presentation of the
stimulus questions.
Validated Methods for Test Data Analysis
At least two studies (original and replication) published in “POLYGRAPH”, or other peer reviewed journals, government
publications or edited academic texts.
Validated Techniques
• FEDERAL ZCT
• UTAH ZCT ( PLC/DLC)
• AFMGQT
• DLST
• BACKSTER You- Phase
• CIT
• IZCT
• MQTZCT
Four (4) Major Standardized TDA Methods
• 7 position US FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SCORING SYSTEM
• UTAH SCORING SYSTEM
• ESS
• LYKKEN SCORING SYSTEM
TEST DATA ANALYSIS
The systematic process by which a particular set of decisions is applied to the evaluation of diagnostic features and other
physiological data resulting in one of the three outcome decisions.
• DI/SR
• NDI/NSR
• INC/NO
Types of Test Data Analysis
GLOBAL TEST DATA ANALYSIS
- A system of rendering an opinion by viewing the polygraph chart as a whole as opposed to making a systematic comparison
among questions.
- use in RELEVANT/IRRELEVANT TECHNIQUE, PEAK of TENSION TEST and Reid’s GQT
TYPES of TDA
NUMERICAL TEST DATA ANALYSIS
- A systematic assignment of numerical values to physiological responses , and decision rules that are based on the sum of
those numerical values.
- use in ZCT, MGQT
SEVEN-POINT SCALE
NUMERICAL VALUE
+3 = Maximum Truthful Score
+2 = Truthful Score
+1 = Minimum Truthful Score
0
• 1 = Minimum Deception Score
• 2 = Deception Score
• 3 = Maximum Deception Score
THREE-POINT SCALE
+ 1 = if the reaction to the CQ is stronger
0
- 1 = if the reaction to the RQ is stronger
TYPES of NUMERICAL SCORING
BACKSTER SCORING SYSTEM
- complex, with high rate of false-positive errors
US ARMY MILITARY POLICE SCHOOL POLYGRAPH BRANCH (1970)
- simplified the criteria and rules of Backster method
- uses up to 27 physiological features
UNIVERSITY of UTAH SCORING SYSTEM
- reduce the number of physiological features from 27 to 10
- assessment of reaction is based on principles of psychophysiology
EMPIRICAL SCORING SYSTEM
- based on Bigger –is- Better scoring principle
4 MAJOR STANDARDIZED TDA METHODS
• LYKKEN SCORING
• US FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SCORING SYSTEM
• UNIVERSITY OF UTAH SCORING SYSTEM
• EMPIRICAL SCORING SYSTEM
LYKKEN SCORING SYSTEM
Introduced by David Lykken (1959-1960)
Use for CIT/GKT
Entails the ranking of the electrodermal response amplitude from 2 to 0, if the largest EDR takes place on the key item, the
score for the test is 2, if the largest EDR takes place on the key item, the score is 1, all others are scored 0.
Reactions to the first buffer are ignored.
The cut off for the result of RI ( reaction indicated) is equal to the number of CIT subtest.
UTAH SCORING SYSTEM
• Introduced by David Raskin (1970)
• Simplified version of the numerical scoring system techniques introduced by Backster in 1963 and modified by the US
Army in 1970.
• Uses a 7 position scale numerical scoring
• Relevant question is normally compared to the preceding comparison question
• If the preceding CQ is distorted by an artifact, use the closest artifact free CQ for evaluation.
• Scores are assigned in each channel without reference to scores in the other channels.
• Note general chart variability/stability
• Examine charts for artifacts and distortion(DB’s, MVT’s,SNF)
• Reaction must generally start between question onset, and 5 seconds after the subjects answered.
• EDR and Plethysmograph channels have additional minimum latencies after question onset.
• Reactions that begin on time may generally be scored up to 20 second after question onset.
• Positive (+) scores are assigned when the reaction to a CQ is stronger.
• Negative (-) scores are assigned when the reaction to a RQ is stronger.
• A zero is assigned if there is no difference between CQ and RQ
UTAH SCORING SYSTEM
0 = No Difference
+/-1= Noticeable difference
+/-2= Strong and clear difference
+/-3= Dramatic difference, stable tracing &strongest on the chart
RESPIRATION
Respiration is scored first ,to note any artifacts that may affect other channel (DB’s, MVT’s, SNF).
Reactions are indicated by reduction in respiratory activity.
1. decrease in amplitude
2. elevated baseline
3. apnea (blocking)
4. slowing of rate
Respiratory Features
ELECTRODERMAL
Reaction cannot begin before .5 seconds after question onset
Amplitude measured from onset to peak
If reaction started early, measure from point of inflection
Use caution when evaluating reaction that occur during recovery
ELECTRODERMAL
+/- 1 = amplitude is double or 1.5 plus duration or complexity
+/-2 = amplitude is triple or 1.5 plus duration or complexity
+/-3 = amplitude is quadruple, tracing is stable and largest on chart
Electrodermal Features...
CARDIOVASCULAR
Rise in tracing, usually clearer on diastolic side
Duration
+/- 1 = ratio of 1.5 to 1
+/- 2 = ratio of 2 to 1
+/- 3 = ratio of 3 to 1
only one 3 scores per chart and it has to be the largest reaction on the chart
Cardio Features.
DECISION CRITERIA
SINGLE ISSUE = grand total is +/- 6
NDI = grand total of +6 or greater
DI = grand total of -6 or less
INC = scores between -5 and +5
if INC, conduct additional two chart
Cutting score of +/- 6 remains the same for 5 charts
MULTIPLE-FACETED = if/then
1. Used in examinations where the subject may be truthful to some but not to all the RQ.
2. If spot totals are al positive or all negative,
Then, use the +/-6 grand total rule.
3. If any of the spot totals are opposite, some positive and some negative ( ignoring scores of 0),
Then, use a SPOT SCORE RULE (SSR) for each spot.
SPOT SCORE RULE
NDI = +3 or greater at every spot
DI = -3 0r less at any spot
Examinees fail the test not on individual questions
EMPIRICAL SCORING SYSTEM
Introduced in 2008 by R. Nelson, M. Handler and D. Krapohl
Derived from experiment and observation rather than theory
Simple, least complicated
Use five diagnostic features
PHYSIOLOGICAL SIGNALS
RESPIRATION
1. decrease in amplitude for 3 cycles
2. decrease in rate for 3 cycles
3. temporary increase in baseline
EDA
1. amplitude
CARDIO
1. amplitude
Respiratory Features...
EDA
CARDIO
ESS Rules
1. Assign 3- position scores to each component, using the BIGGER is BETTER Rule on the stronger bracketing CQ for each
component.
- if you can see it, point to it, and argue it is BIGGER, then you can score it.
- score all EDA with +/-2
ESS
2. Score only timely reactions.
- don’t score reactions that begin before the stimulus onset/latency long after the answer
3. Don’t score ugly, unstable, and artifacted data.
-leave blank, mark “A” or “/” or score zero (0)
ESS
Use three position scores (+/-)
RESPIRATION x1
EDA x2
CARDIO x1
weights are applied regardless of the magnitude of difference in response
example; even tiny difference in EDA are scored +/-2
DECISION RULES
ZONE COMPARISON TEST
Total score of more than +2 (ignore spot)= NSR/NDI
Total score less than -4 = SR/DI
If INC, then any spot less than -7= SR/DI
DECISION RULES
BI ZONE/YOU PHASE
Total is more than +2 (ignore spot)= NSR/NDI
Total of less than -4 = SR/DI
If INC, then any spot less than -6 = SR/DI
DECISION RULES
MGQT and DLST
SR = if any subtotal is less than -3
NSR = when all subtotal is more than +1
INC = other result
US FEDERAL GOVERNMENT SCORING SYSTEM
Oldest
A modification of the Backster Scoring System
Originally based on 22 diagnostic features (USAMPS)
In 2006, DoDPI made changes in physiological features ( kept 8 main features and introduced 3 auxiarlary features
VARIATION of US FEDERAL GOVT TDA
• 7 POSITION SCALE
• 7 POSITION EVIDENTIARY
• 3 POSITION SCALE
RESPIRATION
Reaction begins from the start of the question to one full cycle after the answer for at least 3cycles.
PNEUMOGRAPH DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES
• SUPPRESSION (decrease in amplitude)
• APNEA
• CHANGE in INHALATION/EXHALATION RATIO
• PROGRESSIVE DECREASE IN AMPLITUDE
• SLOWING of RATE
• TEMPORARY CHANGE IN BASELINE( Secondary)
ELECTRODERMAL
Reaction begins from the stimulus on et to the answer up to return to baseline
• EDA DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES
• AMPLITUDE (main feature)
• COMPLEXITY
• DURATION
Complexity and duration is taken into account only when both compared EDA amplitudes are similar
CARDIO
• Start of reaction is from stimulus onset to the end of the answer.
• Range of reaction is from start to return to baseline.
• CARDIO DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES
• INCREASE OF BASELINE ( main feature)
• DECREASE IN PULSE RATE(if main feature does not occur)
• DURATION (Auxiliarly)
when compared changes of baseline are equal.
GENERAL GUIDELINES
7 POSITION SCALE:
0 = no response to compare
 +/-1 = subtle difference
+/-2 = definite difference
+/-3 = dramatic difference
PNEUMOGRAPH
+/- 1 = USUAL SCORE
+/- 2 = RARE SCORE
+/- 3 = NEVER
In case of two equivalent diagnostic features, measure the time window of longer reaction and then compare the length line
( RLL) in the same time window of reaction.
RESPIRATION LINE LENGTH
Refers to the linear measurement of a waveform over a specified period of time
• apnea blocking
• decrease in Amplitude
• progressive decrease in amplitude
• decrease in cyclic rate
• inhalation/exhalation (i/e) ratio change
ELECTRODERMAL
+/- 1 = if ratio is not more than 3:1
+/- 2 = if ratio is 3:1
+/- 3 = if ratio is more than 4:1
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule regarding quantity of chart division;
+/- 1 = up to 2 division
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 division
+/- 3 = more than 3 division
CARDIO
+/- 1 = up to 2 times greater increase in baseline
+/- 2 = from 2 to 3 times greater reaction
+/- 3 = at least 3 times greater reaction
If there is no reaction to one of the compared questions, apply the rule regarding quantity of chart division;
+/-1 = up to 2 division
+/-2 = from 2 to 3 division
+/-3 = more than 3 division
ZONE COMPARISON TECHNIQUE
DI = if grand total is less than -6 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if every subtotal is more than +1 and grand total more than +6
INC = other results
YOU PHASE ( BI-ZONE)
DI = when grand total is less than -4 or any subtotal less than -3
NDI = if all subtotal is greater than +1 and grand total is more than +4
INC = other result
(R.S Lotivo)

Ethical Standard in Polygraph Examination

Qualifications of a Polygraph Examiner

• Must be a College Degree Holder

• Must have a Polygraph Training
• Must adhere to the code of ethics and standard principles of the profession

Responsibilities of a Polygraph Examiner

To the subject-fairness, impartiality and objectivity

To his organization- faith and loyalty

Rights of the Subject

• Right to be examined by a qualified polygraph expert

• Right to be determined fit for examination
• Right to be informed of the reason for the test
• Right to have an explanation of the lie detection instrument and what it does
• Right to consent the test
• Must not be compelled to undergo prolonged questioning
• Must not be exposed to physical abuse
• Must not be exposed to oral vilification or abuse
• Right to refuse to submit to the lie-detector test
• Right to be presumed innocent until proven
• Must not be exposed to mental or physical abuse

Prohibited Inquiries

No inquiries into the following areas during pre-employment or periodic employment examinations:
• Religious beliefs or affiliations
• Beliefs or opinions regarding racial matters
• Political beliefs or affiliations
• Beliefs affiliations or lawful activities regarding unions or labor organizations
• sexual preferences and activities
(American Polygraph Association)

Admissibility of Result
In the Philippines, polygraph results are not admitted as evidence. Many polygraph examiners and lawyers have attempted
presenting polygraph evidence in court but all resulted to futile.

The Employee Polygraph Protection Act

In the U.S and other countries polygraph testing has been an aid in selection of applicants. Many employers require applicants
to undergo a lie detector test including those job which require handling sensitive tasks. Some employers have abused the use
of the polygraph by asking questions that are embarrassing in nature including private matters and sexual preferences.

The United States have passed a law banning all private employers from using polygraph in hiring process or to continue
working on a company. The Employee Polygraph Protection Act however allows the polygraph to be used in positions that
involves drugs, security and other related matters. It can also be utilized in investigating a theft or a crime upon a written
notice.

Court Admissibility

Generally, polygraph results in the current setting is not recognized as an admissible evidence.

There is still no court ruling allowing lie detector test as an admissible evidence however, it may be permitted by a judge under
some circumstance. In Japan, polygraph evidence is admissible in court.

There are few cases in the U.S. that lie detector test was considered to be admissible. The U.S. Court of Appeals declared in
precedent setting decision that “the Science of Polygraph has progressed to a level of acceptance sufficient to allow the use of
polygraph evidence” on the case of U.S. vs. Piccionnona in 1989. Same also with the case of William Daubert vs. Merrel Dow
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., in U.S. Supreme court sometime in 1993, in which the court adopted polygraph expert scientific
testimony in federal trial. Another example is about the U.S. vs. Scheffer trial in 1998, in which the polygraph (lie detector)
provides another accurate form of circumstantial evidence of consciousness of guilt and found it sufficiently reliable to be
admitted.

It is established that for an evidence to be accepted it should qualify under the Daubert Standard (United States Supreme Court
in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, 509 U.S.579 (1993) which superseded the Frye Standard (Frye v. U.S. 293 F.
1013 (D.C. Cir. 1923))

When does a polygraph result admissible in court?

• When the examination is conducted upon court order.
• When the business suffers economic loss and the employee of business who refuses the exam is implicated.
• When the polygraph is made a condition or precedent to employment in continuous employment.
• When the nature of the subjects relation to the public so demand
(Manwong & caballero, 2017)

Validity and Reliability Issues

Polygraph testing has received much controversy in the scientific community due to its fallibility and inherent unreliability.
The test is said to have little basis for validity that resulted in the rejection of the use of polygraph as evidence in courts.

The reliability and accuracy of the test also depend on the examiner, examinee and the system. The Examiner and Examinee
and the instrument and a number of factors also play vital roles in the reliability and accuracy of the results.

The claim is that there is no physiological pattern specific to deception. A person under examination may experience certain
emotions that can invalidate the results. For example, A person answering truthful statements may be nervous and a person
lying may not be anxious in answering. There are few good studies that validate the ability of polygraph procedures to detect
deception. As Dr. Saxe and Israeli psychologist Gershon Ben-Shahar (1999) note, "it may, in fact, be impossible to conduct a
proper validity study." In real-world situations, it's very difficult to know what the truth is.
The validity of polygraph testing has also been criticized. First because of human nature's tendency to lie. Habitual liars may
affect the result of a polygraph test. A 2016 study found that as a person lies more and more, the brain becomes desensitized,
and is less likely to trigger an autonomic response.

"It is likely the brain's blunted response to repeated acts of dishonesty reflects a reduced emotional response to these acts," lead
study author and neuroscience researcher Neil Garrett said in a statement.

Another problem is that there could be other reasons to react and cause them to breathe more rapidly or experience a rise in
blood pressure, heart rate and sweat "Fear, rage, embarrassment at having been asked a personal question, pain from the cardio
cuff, even the tone of the examiner's voice can all cause the exact same reaction that the polygraph examiner would brand as a
lie," Doug Williams wrote in his book "How to Sting the Polygraph."

Doug Williams, a former Oklahoma police officer started a website and appeared on television shows teaching techniques on
how to beat the polygraph. "The polygraph is not a lie detector, and it is not a truth verifier, it is simply a crude reaction
recorder, and the reactions it records can be indicative of just about anything except deception," Williams wrote in his book. "I
can even teach you how to duplicate this reaction by a simple breathing and muscle exercise. In fact, when you finish reading
this manual, you will be able to control every tracing on the polygraph chart at will."

Later, Williams was caught in helping suspects to beat their polygraph exam. He was then convicted of mail fraud and witness
tampering.

In 2002, The U.S Department of Energy requested a research to be conducted on polygraph exams. The plan is to use it to
identify personnel who may jeopardize national security. The National Research Council of the National Academies of
Science, Engineering and Medicine concluded that it should not be used because the evidence that it works “is scant and
weak”.

The council further stated that "Almost a century of research in scientific psychology and physiology provides little basis for
the expectation that a polygraph test could have extremely high accuracy” and "the inherent ambiguity of the physiological
measures used in the polygraph suggest that further investments in improving polygraph technique and interpretation will
bring only modest improvements in accuracy."

Philippines
■ Rule 130 section 49 of the Rules on Evidence provides that:
“The opinion of a witness on matter requiring special knowledge, skill,
experience or training which he shown to posses, may be received in evidence.”

U.S. United States v. Frye – 1923 – NOT ADMITTED AS EVIDENCE (First case in Polygraphy)

Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals - 1993 (U.S.)

Areas of Inquiry:
■ the theory or technique in question can be (and has been) tested;
■ whether it has been subjected to peer review and publication;
■ its known or potential error rate;
■ the existence and maintenance of standards controlling its operation; and
■ whether it has attracted widespread acceptance within a relevant scientific community.

In New Mexico, the Supreme Court, in State v. Dorsey in 1973, ruled that:
“Polygraph results are admissible as long as (1) the polygraph operator is competent, (2) the procedure used is reliable, and (3)
the “tests made on the subject” are valid.”

In 1983, New Mexico then codified the admissibility of polygraph results with Rules of Evidence, which states that:
"Subject to the provisions of these rules, the opinion of a polygraph examiner may in the discretion of the trial judge be
admitted as evidence as to the truthfulness of any person called as a witness if the examination was performed by a person who
is qualified as an expert polygraph examiner.”

Polygraph testing has been widely used as a valuable tool for decision-making and an effective scientific investigative tool to
solve various cases.

Although the admissibility of the Polygraph test in the Philippines has not been established, it is being used by various
agencies to include the Philippine National Police and National Bureau of Investigation.

Cases in the Philippines

People v. Daniel (G.R. No. L-40330 Nov. 20, 1978)

People v. Adoviso, 309 SCRA 1 (1999)

Francis Galton = in 1879, introduced the Word Association Test using series of irrelevant questions and relevant question
separated in time.

= Reid also developed the silent answer test and guilt-complex test to be administered to overly responsive examinee

in 1950, he developed the Control Question which consist of a known lie and incorporated it into the relevant/irrelevant
technique.

7. Leonard Keeler - He devised the first structured test questions.The

test is made up using relevant questions interspersed with irrelevant
questions.The R and I test.

8. John Reid - He used Keeler's technique and after testing numerous

subjects,he found that in using that technique he was getting too
many inconclusive results and an unacceptable error rate.

9. John Reid - In the detection of deception,He developed a structured

technique using comparison questions.

10.Dick Arther - He operates the National School of Lie Detection and

developed his known lie and probable lie question technique and the
guilt complex question.

1. Cleve Backster - He introduced the symptomatic question or myth

to disclose whether or not an outside issue is bothering the subject.
Now Known as Backster Zone Comparison technique.