Unit-I

What is Business Communication, and why is it important?

Effective business communication involves exchanging information both within an
organization and with individuals outside of it. This type of communication fosters
interaction between employees and management to achieve common goals while
streamlining organizational procedures and minimizing mistakes. To improve your
business communication abilities, it’s essential to enhance your communication
processes within and outside of your organization.
This blog aims to raise awareness about the importance of effective business
communication and provide tips for improving communication skills and processes in the
workplace.
Let’s start with definitions –
 Prof. J. Haste stated that when communication occurs between two or more business
people for effective organization and administration of business, it is considered
business communication.
 According to W.H., business communication is exchanging business-related views,
ideas, and news among the related parties.
 Ricks and Gow defined business communication as a system that affects change
throughout the whole organization.

Why is business communication important?

The following points demonstrate the importance of business communication in an
organization –
 Democratization
Voices of otherwise minority populations are more equitably represented in
organizations that contain democratic decision-making aspects. The strategy firms
use in decision making is just as essential as the decision itself. Look for ways to
enhance and foster a planning culture based on enterprise-wide information sharing
and data-driven communication from top to bottom.
 Boost motivation and morale
Business communication is critical in enhancing employee efficiency. Different plans
and policies, essential issues, organizational goals, and so on are described to
employees through communication, which improves their knowledge and makes
them more efficient in performing their responsibilities.
 To build a better relationship
Communication enables workers and management to express their thoughts and
requirements. Healthy labor relations are critical to the success of any firm, and it
helps sustain peace in this situation.
 Job satisfaction
 Effective, fair and easy communication improves mutual connection and
understanding between employees and management. This contributes to higher
satisfaction levels among employees who work hard to attain their objectives.
 Higher productivity
Effective business communication boosts employee productivity by encouraging
teamwork. It fosters an environment of trust and understanding among employers
and employees. Cooperation with employees and understanding their wants and
desires are required for effective communication.
Employees can complete their responsibilities more successfully and efficiently this
way. Furthermore, excellent communication reduces the possibility of making
mistakes during their task.
 For efficient functioning of the business
Managers’ operational efficiency improves as a result of effective communication.
With fair communication, managers can accomplish many managerial activities, such
as planning, directing, organizing, controlling, and so on. Furthermore, effective
leadership can take place if communication is effective. A proper and smooth
company communication system is required for qualitative leadership actions.
 Helps in decision making
Effective decisions necessitate current knowledge. Using good communication,
managers can get information from various sources and use it to make sound
decisions.
 Proper planning
Organizations may develop excellent plans and policies through effective business
communication. These strategies and policies must be based on accurate
information. Managers must communicate policies and plans within the organization
to implement or execute them on time. They can convey strategies and policies to
internal and external stakeholders through effective communication.
1. Minimize conflicts
Different business parties can exchange information more smoothly with excellent
communication. As a result, there are fewer conflicts, debates, and disagreements
between them.

Process of Communication
Communication is a dynamic process that involves transmitting information from the
sender to the receiver through a channel which in turn gives the feedback in the form
of some message within a given time frame.
There is a total of seven major elements involved in the process of communication;
they are:
2. Sender
The person who initiates the communication in the form of sending the encoded
message to the receiver of the information is known as the sender. The sender is the
first person involved in the process of communication. The sender is the one who is
responsible for the transmission of the correct information and convey it to others.
3. Encoding
Encoding is the second element in the process of communication. The encoding is
done by the end of the sender so that it can be decoded by the receiver in the correct
form. The sender encodes the message in the form of certain words or some certain
symbols, body language, some signs or gestures to translate the information into a
message. The way the sender encodes the message denotes the perception,
background, competencies, skills, or knowledge of the sender.
4. Message
As the message is encoded now, it is ready to be formed into a message by the
sender to be further conveyed to the receiver. The message can be oral, written,
verbal, graphs, gestures, signs, mood, sound, etc.
5. Communication Channel
The sender then chooses the channel/ medium through which the information will be
conveyed to the receiver or recipient. This is a very important channel as the right,
and most appropriate channel needs to be chosen to be able to convey the message
in the most right and effective manner.
The channel may be oral, written, verbal, internet, web, gestures, signs, symbols,
newspapers, etc.
6. Receiver
 The receiver or recipient is the one for whom the message is intended. How the
receiver decodes the message purely depends upon the knowledge which he or she
has.
7. Decoding
Decoding is done by the receiver of the message. Decoding is done to interpret the
message in the correct means in which it is intended.
8. Feedback
The final step of the communication process is the feedback step. The feedback
intends that the sender has sent the right message and the receiver has received and
decoded the right message and understood that in the best possible way. Feedback is
necessary as it increases the efficiency and permits the encoder to know the efficacy
of the message.

Types of Business Communication

There are 4 main types of business communication in any organization or business i.e.

1. Internal Business Communication

Internal Business Communication means communication that occurs within the members
of the organization. This communication includes
both formal and informal communication. Also, different departments that transmit
communication by different means to employees come under internal communication.
Internal communication should be effective as it is a vital source of viewing and
representing organizational issues. Effective internal business communication may
increase job satisfaction level, productivity, the efficiency of employees by decreasing
their turnover and grievances and helps in increasing profits.
It is further categorized as internal (upward) communication and internal (downward)
communication.

a. Internal (Upward) Communication: This type of internal communication involves the

bottom to the top management approach. Here, the information flows from
subordinates to managers or any person that is on the upper in the hierarchy level.

For example, employees of the HR department of an organization prepare an attrition

report and communicate the same to the HR Manager. The attrition report consists of
information on the monthly or annual employee turnover of an organization and reasons
for the same. This helps the HR Manager to understand the cause of attrition and to take
corrective measures on time to reduce employee turnover.
The characteristics of upward internal business communication include:
 It includes bottom to top approach i.e. subordinates to superiors.
 Its nature is participative.
 The main purpose is to provide timely feedback, suggestions, making requests,
escalating any issues or concerns, etc. to superiors.
 The flow of the information is from the lower level to the upper level.
b. Internal (Downward) Communication: In downward communication, the information
flows from the top-level management to the employees in an organization. This
information is related to passing on instructions to subordinates or employees to do their
respective tasks. Downward communication is being used by managers to communicate
different goals, procedures and policies, guidelines, decisions, instructions, etc. to their
subordinates.
The process of downward communication in business includes passing on messages from
the top level to the lower level through the chain of hierarchy. This type of
communication can be in oral or written form. The written form includes different
notices, manuals, news display in electronic form, etc. whereas, the oral form of
downward communication includes different face-to-face conversations, telephonic
communication, meetings, etc.
For example, the top-level management may instruct managers of different departments
on certain new rules and regulations in the work area that need to be carried out in
routine activities of different departments. Like there may be a change in the office
working hours or office timings by the management and the same is communicated to
employees by circular or notice or through the e-mail system.
The characteristics of downward internal business communication include:
 It includes top to bottom approach i.e. superiors to subordinates.
 Its nature is directive.
 Main purpose is to communicate organizational objective, plans and procedures,
instructions, etc. to subordinates.
 The flow of the information is from the upper level to the lower level.

2. Horizontal/Lateral Business Communication

Lateral or horizontal communication is related to communication among co-workers i.e.
either verbal communication or written communication. This may include inter-
departmental communication or communication between cross-departments and can be
between people of the same or similar rank in a company. This is a crucial
communication to achieve the desired results. So, this communication happens among
employees having an equal hierarchy level. To achieve the functional effectiveness of
different organizational units, horizontal or lateral communication is required for
seeking mutual cooperation and mutual help.
For example, the Marketing head of an organization is supposed to communicate about
market trends, customer needs and expectations, product demand scenario, etc. to a
production head for production of products accordingly.
Similarly, the HR manager of an organization works with different department heads for
different functioning like hiring, training needs of employees, performance appraisals,
welfare activities, etc.

3. External Business Communication

Communication with people who are external to the organization is known as external
business communication. These people can be customers or shareholders or suppliers or
partners or regulatory bodies, etc.

For example, the purchase department supervisor may communicate with vendors for
purchase quotations of raw-material and similarly, the sales department communicates
with customers for sales of goods or services.
External communication facilitates increasing sales volume, effective operations, an
increase in profits of organization, etc. This ultimately results in increasing corporate
image, goodwill and overall performance of the organization by achieving its goals and
customer satisfaction.
7 C’s Principle of effective communication
1 Completeness

2 Conciseness

3 Consideration

4 Clarity

5 Concreteness

6 Courtesy

7 Correctness
Whatever field you operate in, you will need to interact professionally with others to
close deals or work on projects. The seven C’s of effective communication assist you in
increasing productivity and engagement by communicating messages that your
audience can simply understand.
1. Completeness
It is necessary to communicate completely. The audience should receive all the
information they require from it. The sender must take the receiver’s viewpoint into
account and correctly relay the message. The following components are included in a
thorough communication-
 An organization’s reputation is built and enhanced by complete communication.
 Additionally, they save money because no important data is lost, and if the
transmission is successful, no additional expenses are needed.
 Complete communication always offers extra details as required. It removes all
uncertainty from the receiver’s mind.
 The audience, readers, or message recipients can make better decisions because
they have access to all necessary and pertinent information when there is
complete communication.
 It persuades the audience.
2. Conciseness
Conciseness implies wordiness, i.e. communicating what you want to say in the fewest
words possible while maintaining the other C’s of communication. Effective
communication necessitates conciseness. Here’s how concise communication helps-
 It saves time while also saving money.
 It emphasizes the core message while avoiding the use of unnecessary words.
  Concise communication conveys a brief and important message to the audience in
a minimum number of words.
 A brief message is more enticing and understandable to the listener.
 A brief message is not repeated.
3. Consideration
Consideration entails “putting oneself in the shoes of others.” Effective communication
must include the audience’s opinions, background, mindset, education level, and so on.
Make an effort to imagine your audience, their needs, emotions, and difficulties.
Make sure that the audience’s self-esteem and emotions are not jeopardized. Modify
your message’s terms to meet the needs of the audience while keeping your it complete.
4. Clarity
When you are able to transmit your thoughts and opinions into the recipient’s mind, you
know communication is effective. You don’t want the recipient to make assumptions or
have a hazy understanding of what you’re expressing.
Only when they completely grasp your message will they be able to make the
appropriate decision. It might occur when you employ plain and straightforward
language to express your point to the recipient.
5. Concreteness
Concrete communication entails being specific and explicit rather than vague and
generic. Concreteness boosts confidence. Simply delivering your message through
statements and questions will not captivate your audience. It is important to back up
your claims with appropriate facts, numbers, and statistics. Otherwise, your audience
will not know whether your message is genuine or not.
6. Courtesy
Courtesy in a message indicates that the message should reflect the sender’s expression
while also respecting the receiver. The sender should be honest, polite, prudent,
contemplative, empathetic, and enthusiastic.
7. Correctness
Communication correctness implies that there are no grammatical errors in
communication. Information correctness or factual accuracy is important in both verbal
and nonverbal communication. You must choose the appropriate words at the right time
while also ensuring that the information is reliable.
Types of Communication Network

1. Vertical Network
The communication which passes from one person or process to another person or
process in a vertical pattern is called Vertical Network. It can happen either in the top to
bottom or bottom to top format. This communication provides an immediate response
as the receiver receives the information faster than any other network. We can call this
network as a formal network. The best example is the communication between top level
and bottom level employees. Miscommunication does not happen in this network as this
is a type of direct communication.

2. Chain Network
This network is in a hierarchical level and follows a series of commands. Here bottom to
top communication does not happen. Superiors ordering the subordinates is the best
example of this type of network. Also, the leader leading the group of people is an
example of Chain Network. The message has to reach from top-level to bottom level
without any alteration of meaning or words. Care should be taken to avoid the same.
This network is not fast and few people who don’t understand the message will remain
in the loop.

3. Circuit Network
When the communication between two people happens simultaneously in a circuit is
called Circuit Network. Though it works like Vertical Network, there are no superiors or
subordinates or at least not considered like them. Here the communication is a two-way
communication. The messaging or information reception is continuous and the people
involved can be at the same hierarchical level.

4. Wheel or Spoke Network

The commands or information is from a single superior and subordinates form a wheel in
the network. The entire network is highly centralized format and expects immediate
feedback once the message is given to the receiver. And due to this, we can call this
communication as a type of micromanagement. This network is an improved form of
Chain Network. Since the information is received directly from the central authority,
there is no chance of miscommunication and the communication is very powerful.
Startups mostly use this type of network.

5. Star Network
Several people are involved in this network and the process forms a star shape. This
network enables people to communicate with each other or with people who are
involved in the same process. This network can be considered as a development of a
wheel network with no central person to control the way of communication. All are free
to communicate with each other. No restrictions are present to block the communication
between people in the process. Teamwork is built using this communication. A
WhatsApp group which is related to work is a good example of Star Network.

Model of Communication

Model of Type of
# Communication Model Brief Description

Aristotle argues that we should look at five

elements of a communication event to analyze
how best to communicate: speaker, speech,
1. Aristotle’s Model Linear occasion, target audience and effect.

Lasswell’s model is a basic framework for

analyzing one-way communication by asking
five questions: Who, said what, through which
2. Lasswell’s Model Linear channel, to whom, with what effects?

The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to

highlight the role of ‘noise’ in communication,
Shannon-Weaver which can disrupt or alter a message between
3. Model Linear sender and receiver.
 Model of Type of
# Communication Model Brief Description

Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains communication

Berlo’s S-M-C-R in four steps: Source, Message, Channel,
4. Model Linear and Receiver.

The Osgood-Schramm model looks at

reciprocal communication, showing how we
Osgood-Schramm Interactiv have to encode, decode, and interpret
5. Model e information in real-time during a conversation.

The Westley and Maclean model shows that

Westley and Interactiv our communication is influenced by
6. Maclean Model e environmental, cultural and personal factors.

Barnlund’s Barnlund’s Transactional Model of

Transactional Transacti Communication highlights the role of private
7. Model onal and public cues that impact our messages.

Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as

a circular process that gets more and more
Dance’s Helical Transacti complex as communication occurs, which can
8. Model onal be represented by a helical spiral.

The Linear Models

Quick Summary: Linear models explain one directional communication processes.
1. Aristotle’s Model
One Sentence Overview: A framework for thinking about how to improve your
communication abilities, by looking at key aspects underpinning a situation.
Aristotle’s model of communication is the oldest communication model, dating back to
300BC. The model was designed to examine how to become a better and more
convincing communicator. Aristotle argues we should look at five elements of a
communication event to analyze how best to communicate: speaker, speech, occasion,
target audience and effect. He also identified three elements that will improve
communication: ethos (credibility), pathos (ability to connect) and logos (logical
argument). Aristotle’s model does not pay attention to the role of feedback in
communication.
2. Lasswell’s Model
One Sentence Overview: A basic framework for analyzing one-way communication by
asking five questions: Who, said what, through which channel, to whom, with what
effects?

Lasswell’s model of communication tries to understand a communication event by

asking five important questions. It looks at who created the message (and what their
bias may be), what they said, the channel they said it through (e.g. TV, radio, blog), who
they said it two, and what effect it had on the receiver. This model is effective as it
provides a very simple and practical way of critiquing a message and exploring five
important elements that can help explain the event under analysis in more detail.
Question Component How to Analyze Example of Component

Who? Communicator Control Analysis Vacuum cleaner salesman

Says Promotes his brand of vacuum as

What? Message Content Analysis the best brand

In Which
Channel? Medium Media Analysis On television

Audience To evening TV viewers in the United

To Whom? Audience Analysis States

Achieving brand awareness,

promoting the belief that this is the
With What best vacuum, leading to increased
Effect? Effect Effects Analysis sales revenue

3. Shannon-Weaver Model

One Sentence Overview: The Shannon-Weaver model is the first to highlight the role of
‘noise’ in communication, which can disrupt or alter a message between sender and
receiver.
The Shannon-Weaver model sees communication occurring in five key parts: sender,
encoder, channel, decoder, receiver. It emphasizes the importance of encoding and
decoding messages for them to be sent (e.g. turning them into written words, morse
code, etc.). During the process of encoding, sending and decoding, ‘noise’ occurs that can
disrupt or cloud a message. In the most traditional sense, this may be static on a radio
broadcast, or even extend to mishearing a conversation or misspelling an email. This
model was the first to introduce the role of noise in the communication process.The idea
of feedback was retroactively introduced to this model.

4. Berlo’s S-M-C-R Model

One Sentence Overview: Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains communication in four
steps: Source, Message, Channel, and Receiver.

Berlo’s model of communication explains it in four steps: Source, Message, Channel,

and Receiver. The unique aspect of Berlo’s model is that it gives a detailed account of the
key elements in each step that will affect how well the message is communicated:
 Source: Elements of the source include communication skills of the sender, their
attitude and their culture.
 Message: Elements of the message include its content, structure and code.
 Channel: Elements of the channel include the senses of hearing, seeing, touching,
smelling, etc.
 Receiver: Elements of the receiver include their attitude, knowledge and culture.
See a summary of all elements in the image below:

The Interactive Models

Quick Summary: Interactive models are best for explaining impersonal two-way
communication processes.
5. Osgood-Schramm Model

One Sentence Overview: The Osgood-Schramm model looks at reciprocal

communication, showing how we have to encode, decode, and interpret information in
real-time during a conversation.
The Osgood-Schramm model explores communication that is equal and reciprocal.
It does not differentiate between the sender and receiver, but sees each as being in an
equal position as message encoders and decoders.
This model is best for explaining and examining personal synchronous communication
where feedback is immediate (such as face-to-face discussions). As feedback is
immediate, noise can be reduced through ongoing clarification of messages during the
conversation.

6. The WestleyAnd Maclean Model

One Sentence Overview: The Westley and Maclean model shows that our
communication is influenced by environmental, cultural and personal factors.
The Westley and Maclean model embraces the importance of feedback in
communication. However, it also emphasizes the important role of environmental and
cultural factors in influencing communication. It shows that the things we say and
communicate are influenced by who we are, what our background is, and what
perspective we are approaching issues from. The model takes into account the object of
orientation (background, culture and beliefs) of the sender and receiver of messages. It
also considers the message to have been received and sent within a broader social
context that needs to be considered to know and understand the message.

The Transactional Models

Quick Summary: Transactional models explain direct personal communication processes
where two-way feedback is immediate.
7. Barnlund’s Transactional Model

One Sentence Overview: Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication highlights

the role of private and public cues that impact our messages.Barnlund’s Transactional
Model of Communication is a model that explores interpersonal, immediate-feedback
communication. Central to this approach is the idea that feedback for the sender is the
reply for the receiver. This model also highlights the role of ‘cues’ in impacting our
messages. Barnlund highlights the role of public cues which are environmental cues,
and private cues which are a person’s personal thoughts and background. With this
emphasis on cues, Barnlund’s model highlights the factors that influence what we think
and say..
8. Dance’s Helical Model

One Sentence Overview: Dance’s Helical Model sees communication as a circular

process that gets more and more complex as communication occurs, which can be
represented by a helical spiral. Dance’s Helical Model builds on circular models by
explaining how we improve our messages over time by using feedback. When we
communicate with others, their feedback will influence our next statement. We become
more knowledgeable with each cycle of communication, enabling up to ‘expand our
circle’, as represented by the increasingly wider and wider circles. The movement up the
spiral indicates that each communication practice is new and different from the
previous, as communication does not ever perfectly repeat itself.

Barriers of Communication
The success of an act of communication depends upon many factors like the choice of
the appropriate message, understanding of the audience, preparedness of the sender
and the receiver, selection of the right channel and code. But absence of barriers is the
most important requirement for the success of all modes of communication. The barriers
to communication include:
• Wrong choice of medium
• Selective Perception
• Defensiveness
• Physical barriers
• Time and Distance
• Semantic barriers
• Difference in the Comprehension of Reality
• Socio-psychological barriers
• Difference of knowledge level
• Lack of Common Language

Wrong choice of Medium

Whatever message we may want to convey, it has to be transmitted through an
appropriate medium. If someone wants to send a message instantly to a distant friend,
s/he cannot use the ‘word of the mouth’ in the face to face mode to do that. It has to be
either telephonic, computer-mediated e-mail or tele-fax. Similarly a manger cannot use a
letter to give a report of the Annual Sales Proceeds of his/her company; a specially
designed report has to submitted for this purpose. A telephonic information regarding a
promotion is less important than conveying the message face to face. While dealing with
a problematic employee, for example, one may resort to issuing memos but this should
be the last resort as the memos pile up documentary evidence against the person and
embitter his relationship with the sender. On the other hand, such disputes can be easily
sorted out through the word of the mouth or through non-verbal means, may be smile
and a pat.

Selective perception
Different people have different perceptions of different things. When the receiver has a
different perception from that of a sender regarding the idea or information being
transmitted, then communication is bound to be adversely affected. Usually a receiver
filters a message in accordance with his experience, interests, needs, motivations,
background and other socio-psychological characteristics and has the potential to twist
a message in his/her own favour. Differences in perspectives or perceptions leads to
miscommunication as it results in the loss of symbols, distortion of the symbols and the
creation of new symbols (Das, 2009, p.112).

Defensiveness
Often it so happens that the receiver finds the message threatening and thus
unacceptable, and shows reluctance to receive the message. While filtering the message,
the receiver therefore maintains a defensive stand and affects communication
negatively.

Physical Barrier
Noise is the most notorious physical barrier which often disrupts communication. This is
usually the case in places where noise from the machines or electronic gadgets hinders
proper transmission of the message. Under noise we can also include all kinds of physical
interferences like illegible handwriting, poor and inaudible telephonic conversation or
recordings, smudged copies of duplicated typescripts, low level of light on the projector
screens. In pubic speaking, the technical problem with the microphone often spoils the
show.

Time and Distance

The time when a statement is made or information is conveyed can also make a
difference. Often it is seen that some officers prefer to talk to the outsiders in the
morning. There might be also communication gap among people working on different
shifts. A person working on the day shift may not be able to understand the problem of a
person on the night shift. The sitting arrangement in the places of meetings may also
cause problems in getting the message across. A person sitting near the window may not
be able to get a message clearly because of the external distractions. On the other hand
a person sitting in the first row or the first few rows may get the right message.

Semantic Barriers
Sometimes there is breach of communication due to the different meanings that the
sender and the receiver assign to a particular word or expression. In every language,
different words have a lot of denotative as well as connotative meanings and when the
sender and receiver of a message attach two different meanings to a word, there is
communication gap. This may happen due to the differences in the social, economic and
cultural backgrounds of the participants. In order to avoid such barriers the speaker or
the writer should use words which have clear meanings, are familiar to the sender and
the receiver and words that have positive connotations.

Difference in Comprehensive of Reality

All human beings do not perceive the reality in the same manner. Some simply believe in
themselves and do not accept anything that goes against their beliefs; some may try to
understand reality when it is supported by documentary evidence; some draw inferences
and some others get affected by others’ opinions. In stead of being objective, we often
go by subjective interpretations of reality. When our subjective interpretations dominate
over the objective facts, communication is the worst victim.

Socio-Psycological Barriers
Socio-psychological barriers include the hindrances that arouse due to our attitudes,
opinions, emotions, mind-set and other behavioural eccentricities. They can be enlisted
as follows:
(i) Attitudes and Opinions: Our attitudes and opinions impact the way we respond to a
person or a message transmitted by that person. If the person/message is favourable to
us we respond positively but when it is not favourable to us, we react negatively and
disrupt communication.
(ii) Emotions: A mind filled with emotions cannot be rational. Hence when we are either
excited or agitated, we tend to block the transmission of a message and cause breach of
communication.
(iii) Closed-mind: In order to receive and reciprocate a message, we need to have a open
mind. A closed-mind is just like a closed door, obstructing the inflow of information.
(iv)Status-Consciousness: Being over-conscious of our higher or lower status, we do not
express ourselves openly and thus block the proper transmission of a message.
(v) The source of communication: Our reaction to a message depends upon the source
from which it has originated. We trust it if the source is reliable and do not trust it when
it is not.
(vi)Inattentiveness: While listening to somebody, we often unconsciously remain
inattentive when the idea being transmitted is new and our mind is not ready to accept
it.
(vii) Faulty transmission: Sometimes a message is lost when it is not properly
transmitted either due to a defective channel or due to the unpreparedness of the
receiver.
(viii) Poor retention: Human memory has limited storage capacity and any message that
is extraordinarily long or disjointed is likely to be lost. This is particularly the case with
oral messages which are lost due to poor human retention.
(ix) Unsolicited Communication: Often it so happens that we receive a communication
which we had never desired. In such cases, we either ignore such communications or
respond to them in a lackadaisical manner

Difference in Knowledge Level

Communication gap may also occur when there is a gap in the knowledge levels of the
sender and the receiver. If a speaker is speaking on Astrophysics to a group of students
from humanities, s/he may not be able drive home the ideas. With no knowledge of
astrophysics the students may struggle to make something out of the speech but
majority of the message will go above their heads.

Difference in Language
When the frames of reference differ, it leads to communication gaps or
miscommunication. This particularly happens when there is a difference of registers. A
student of medicine will not understand what a professor of mechanical engineering
speaks and the vice versa. Different words have different connotations in different
cultures. The word ‘guru’ in the Indian culture is a spiritual guide who is supposed to
guide people from darkness to light but now this word has gained currency in the
western world as a synonym for an authority or expert.
 Unit – II
Oral Communication: Oral communication refers to the process of exchanging
information, ideas, thoughts, and emotions through spoken words. It plays a vital role in
both personal and professional interactions, enabling effective interaction and
understanding between individuals or groups.

Principles of Successful Oral Communication:

1. Clarity: Express your thoughts and ideas clearly, using simple language and concise
statements. Avoid jargon or complex terminology that might confuse the listener.
2. Conciseness: Be brief and to the point. Avoid unnecessary elaboration or repetition, as
it can lead to loss of interest or confusion.
3. Engagement: Capture your audience's attention by starting with a compelling
introduction. Maintain their interest by using anecdotes, relevant examples, or
stories.
4. Active Listening: Effective communication involves listening attentively to the other
party. This helps you respond appropriately and shows that you value their input.
5. Nonverbal Cues: Pay attention to your body language, facial expressions, gestures,
and tone of voice. These cues often convey emotions and attitudes that complement
your spoken words.
6. Adaptability: Tailor your communication style to the audience. Consider factors such
as their background, knowledge, and preferences when conveying your message.
7. Feedback: Encourage feedback from your listeners. This not only demonstrates your
openness to their opinions but also helps you gauge their understanding of the
message.
8. Structure: Organize your thoughts logically. Use an introduction, body, and conclusion
structure to make your communication flow smoothly and coherently.
9. Eye Contact: Maintain appropriate eye contact while speaking. This helps establish a
connection with your audience and indicates confidence and sincerity.
10. Empathy: Try to understand the perspectives and feelings of your audience. This
allows you to communicate in a way that resonates with them and addresses their
needs.
11. Cultural Sensitivity: Be aware of cultural differences that might affect
communication. Respect diverse cultural norms and avoid inadvertently causing
offense.
12. Confidence: Speak with confidence and self-assurance. This instills trust in your
listeners and makes your message more persuasive.
13. Practice: Practice your oral communication skills regularly. This can help you
improve your delivery, reduce nervousness, and enhance your ability to articulate
thoughts effectively.
14. Visual Aids: When appropriate, use visual aids such as slides, diagrams, or props
to enhance your message and provide visual support.
15. Stay on Topic: Stick to the main point and avoid going off on tangents. Rambling
can lead to confusion and boredom among your listeners.
Remember that effective oral communication is a skill that can be developed with
practice and conscious effort. By following these principles, you can enhance your ability
to convey messages clearly, engage your audience, and foster meaningful interactions.

Conversation Control
Conversation control refers to the skill of managing a conversation's flow, direction, and
dynamics to ensure effective communication and engagement. It involves the ability to
initiate, guide, and conclude conversations while ensuring that all participants have the
opportunity to contribute and be heard.
Effective conversation control involves:
1. Initiation: Starting a conversation with a clear purpose or topic to engage the
participants and set the tone for the discussion.
2. Topic Management: Keeping the conversation focused on the main subject while
preventing it from deviating into unrelated or irrelevant areas.
3. Turn-taking: Allowing each participant to take turns speaking without interruptions,
thereby promoting a respectful and inclusive environment.
4. Asking Questions: Using questions to gather information, encourage participation,
and steer the conversation toward relevant points.
5. Summarizing: Periodically summarizing key points to ensure understanding and help
participants stay on track.
6. Transitioning: Smoothly transitioning between different subtopics or aspects of the
conversation, ensuring coherence and logical progression.
7. Closure: Concluding the conversation by summarizing the main points, expressing
gratitude, and leaving room for further discussion or follow-up.

Reflection and Empathy: Two Sides of Effective Oral Communication:

1. Reflection: Reflection involves actively listening to what the other person is saying
and then paraphrasing or restating their points to confirm your understanding.
Reflective responses demonstrate that you are attentive and engaged in the
conversation. It helps in clarifying any misunderstandings and validating the speaker's
thoughts.
For example, if someone says, "I'm really struggling with this project's deadline," a
reflective response could be, "It sounds like you're feeling overwhelmed by the tight
deadline."
2. Empathy: Empathy is the ability to understand and share the feelings of another
person. It goes beyond understanding their words and involves connecting with their
 emotions. Empathetic responses show that you care about the speaker's feelings and
experiences, creating a supportive and compassionate atmosphere.

Using the same example, an empathetic response could be, "I can imagine that the
pressure from the deadline is causing a lot of stress. Is there anything I can do to help?"
By combining reflection and empathy, you create a communication environment that
fosters understanding, trust, and rapport. Reflecting what the speaker is saying and
showing empathy toward their emotions allows you to connect more deeply, leading to
more meaningful conversations and better interpersonal relationships.

Effective Listening
Effective listening is a crucial component of successful communication. It involves not
only hearing the words being spoken but also understanding the message, the emotions
behind the words, and the context in which they are being conveyed. Here are some key
aspects of effective listening:
1. Active Engagement: Actively engage with the speaker by giving them your full
attention. Avoid distractions and show that you are genuinely interested in what they
have to say.
2. Maintain Eye Contact: Maintaining appropriate eye contact demonstrates your
attentiveness and interest in the conversation.
3. Avoid Interrupting: Allow the speaker to express their thoughts without interruption.
Interrupting can disrupt their flow and make them feel unheard.
4. Ask Clarifying Questions: If you're unsure about something, ask clarifying questions
to ensure you understand the message correctly.
5. Summarize and Paraphrase: Periodically summarize or paraphrase what the speaker
has said to confirm your understanding and show that you are actively processing the
information.
6. Provide Feedback: Offer verbal cues like "I see," "I understand," or nodding to let the
speaker know you are following along.
7. Empathetic Responses: Respond empathetically to the speaker's emotions and
feelings. This shows that you are not just focused on the words, but also on the
emotions being conveyed.
8. Avoid Prejudgment: Keep an open mind and avoid forming judgments or conclusions
before the speaker has finished expressing themselves.
9. Be Patient: Sometimes, people may take a moment to gather their thoughts. Be
patient and give them the time they need to express themselves fully.
10. Limit Distractions: Find a quiet and comfortable environment to have a
conversation, minimizing background noise and distractions.
Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal communication refers to the messages conveyed
through facial expressions, gestures, body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal
cues. It often complements and reinforces verbal communication, and sometimes it can
even convey more than words alone. Here are some key elements of nonverbal
communication:
1. Facial Expressions: Facial expressions convey emotions and attitudes. Smiles, frowns,
raised eyebrows, and eye rolls can all communicate feelings.
2. Gestures: Hand movements, gestures, and body posture can add meaning to spoken
words. For example, a thumbs-up gesture indicates approval.
3. Posture: Your body posture can convey confidence, attentiveness, or even
defensiveness. Standing or sitting upright generally shows engagement.
4. Eye Contact: Eye contact communicates interest, honesty, and attentiveness.
Appropriate eye contact fosters a connection between the speaker and listener.
5. Tone of Voice: The tone of voice—whether it's gentle, enthusiastic, stern, or
sarcastic—conveys emotions and adds nuance to the words being spoken.
6. Proximity: How close you stand or sit to someone can communicate intimacy,
comfort, or personal boundaries.
7. Touch: Appropriate touch, such as a handshake or a pat on the back, can convey
warmth, friendliness, or support.
8. Use of Space: How you use and control space during a conversation can signal
authority, dominance, or inclusion.
9. Micro expressions: These are very brief facial expressions that reveal underlying
emotions. They can be difficult to control and may provide insights into true feelings.
By paying attention to both verbal and nonverbal cues, you can gain a deeper
understanding of the message being conveyed and establish stronger connections with
others.

Purpose of Writing
Writing serves various purposes, such as communicating ideas, sharing information,
expressing creativity, persuading, entertaining, documenting, and educating. The
purpose of your writing guides the content, style, and tone you use. It's important to
identify your purpose before you start writing, as it helps you tailor your message to your
intended audience and achieve your desired outcomes.
Clarity in Writing: Clarity in writing means that your message is easily understood by
your readers. Clear writing avoids ambiguity, confusion, and unnecessary complexity. To
achieve clarity:
1. Use Clear Language: Use simple and precise language. Avoid jargon, technical terms,
or convoluted sentences that might confuse your readers.
2. Organize Thoughts Logically: Structure your writing with a clear introduction, body,
and conclusion. Each paragraph should have a clear main idea.
3. Be Concise: Eliminate unnecessary words or repetitions. Get straight to the point
without meandering.
4. Avoid Ambiguity: Ensure that your sentences can be interpreted in only one way.
Ambiguity can lead to misinterpretation.
5. Define Terms: If you use specialized terms or acronyms, provide explanations to
ensure readers understand them.

Principles of Effective Writing:

1. Audience Awareness: Know your target audience and tailor your writing to their level
of understanding and interests.
2. Purpose Clarity: Clearly define your writing's purpose, whether it's to inform,
persuade, entertain, or educate.
3. Coherence: Ensure that your writing flows smoothly from one idea to the next,
creating a logical and connected narrative.
4. Consistency: Maintain consistency in style, tone, and formatting throughout your
writing.
5. Relevance: Include only information that is relevant to your topic and purpose. Avoid
tangents that might distract readers.
6. Use of Evidence: Support your points with evidence, examples, or references to
enhance credibility and persuade your audience.
7. Editing and Proofreading: Edit your work for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and
clarity. Proofread to catch any errors before finalizing your writing.
Approaching the Writing Process Systematically: A systematic approach to writing
enhances the quality of your work and streamlines the process. Here's a general
approach to writing:
1. Pre-Writing:
 Understand your purpose, audience, and message.
 Research and gather relevant information and sources.
 Organize your thoughts with outlines, mind maps, or notes.
2. Drafting:
 Write a rough draft without worrying too much about perfection.
 Focus on getting your ideas down on paper.
3. Revising:
 Review your draft for clarity, coherence, and organization.
 Add, delete, or rearrange content as needed.
4. Editing:
 Check for grammar, spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure errors.
 Ensure consistent style and tone.
5. Proofreading:
 Carefully review your work for any remaining errors before finalizing it.
6. Finalizing:
 Format your work according to any guidelines or requirements.
  Ensure that your writing aligns with your purpose and effectively addresses your
audience.
Approaching writing systematically helps you manage your time and produce more
polished and effective pieces of writing.

Writing Job Applications: Preparing a Professional Resume & Cover Letter:

When applying for a job, your resume and cover letter are crucial components of your
application. They provide employers with insights into your qualifications, experiences,
and motivations. Here's how to prepare a professional resume and cover letter:

1. Resume:
A resume is a concise summary of your education, work experience, skills, and
achievements. It should be well-organized, easy to read, and tailored to the specific job
you're applying for.

Key Elements of a Resume:

 Contact Information: Include your full name, phone number, email address, and
location.
 Summary or Objective: A brief statement that highlights your career goals and what
you bring to the role.
 Work Experience: List your previous jobs in reverse chronological order (most recent
first). Include job titles, company names, dates of employment, and a description of
your responsibilities and accomplishments.
 Education: List your degrees, schools attended, and graduation dates. Include
relevant coursework, honors, and awards.
 Skills: Highlight both hard skills (technical abilities) and soft skills (communication,
teamwork, etc.) that are relevant to the job.
 Achievements: Mention any quantifiable accomplishments or contributions that
showcase your abilities.
 Optional Sections: Depending on the job, you can include sections for certifications,
volunteer work, publications, languages, and hobbies.

2. Cover Letter:
A cover letter is your opportunity to introduce yourself, explain why you're a good fit for
the position, and demonstrate your enthusiasm for the role and company.
Key Elements of a Cover Letter:
 Salutation: Address the letter to the hiring manager or the appropriate contact
person.
 Introduction: Start with a compelling opening that mentions the specific job you're
applying for and how you learned about it.
 Body Paragraphs: Use two or three paragraphs to highlight your relevant
qualifications and experiences. Discuss how your skills align with the job requirements
and provide specific examples.
 Company Fit: Show your understanding of the company's values, goals, and industry.
Explain why you're interested in working for them.
 Closing: Thank the reader for considering your application and express your eagerness
to discuss your qualifications further.
 Signature: Use a professional closing (e.g., "Sincerely") and include your full name and
contact information.

Tips for Writing a Strong Resume and Cover Letter:

 Tailor: Customize your resume and cover letter for each job application. Use keywords
from the job description to highlight your relevant skills.
 Quantify Achievements: Whenever possible, include quantifiable achievements (e.g.,
"Increased sales by 20%") to demonstrate your impact.
 Be Concise: Keep your resume to one or two pages and your cover letter to a
maximum of one page.
 Proofread: Check for grammar, spelling, and formatting errors. A polished application
shows attention to detail.
 Professional Tone: Maintain a professional and positive tone throughout your
documents.
 Research: Research the company and position to demonstrate your genuine interest
and understanding.
Remember, your resume and cover letter should present you as a strong candidate who
can contribute to the company's success. Make sure they reflect your skills, experiences,
and motivations accurately and persuasively.

Internal Communication Techniques for Management Students: Memos, Minutes,

Notices, and Circulars
Effective internal communication is essential for the smooth functioning of any
organization. As management students, it's crucial to understand and practice various
communication techniques used within the business environment. Here's a breakdown of
common internal communication tools: memos, minutes, notices, and circulars.

1. Memos (Memorandum):
Memos are short, concise documents used to communicate information within an
organization. They are often used to convey announcements, updates, requests, or
decisions to a specific group of employees. Here's how to structure a memo:
 Header: Includes the "To," "From," "Date," and "Subject" lines.
  Body: Presents the information clearly and succinctly. Use bullet points, headings,
and short paragraphs for easy readability.
 Conclusion or Call to Action: If necessary, summarize key points or specify any
actions required.

2. Minutes of Meetings: Minutes are official records of discussions and decisions made
during meetings. As management students, you'll often participate in or lead meetings.
Properly recorded minutes ensure accountability and clarity. Here's how to create
effective meeting minutes:
 Header: Meeting name, date, time, location, and attendees' names.
 Agenda: A list of topics to be discussed.
 Discussion: Summarize discussions and key points made for each agenda item.
 Decisions and Action Items: Clearly outline the decisions made and assign
responsibilities for action items.
 Next Meeting: Set a date and time for the next meeting.

3. Notices: Notices are used to inform employees about events, policy changes, holidays,
or other important matters. As management students, you might need to create notices
to keep the organization informed. Key elements of a notice include:
 Heading: Title of the notice.
 Date: Date of issuance.
 Content: Briefly explain the purpose or details of the notice.
 Contact Information: Provide a point of contact for further inquiries if needed.
 Signature: The name or designation of the person issuing the notice.

4. Circulars: Circulars are more formal documents used to circulate information

throughout an organization. They can be used to introduce new policies, procedures, or
company-wide updates. When creating a circular:
 Heading: Title of the circular.
 Date: Date of issuance.
 Introduction: Clearly state the purpose of the circular and its relevance.
 Body: Provide detailed information or instructions.
 Attachments: If applicable, include any additional documents, forms, or charts.
 Conclusion: Summarize the main points and emphasize any action required.
Remember, clear and concise language is crucial in all these communication techniques.
As management students, developing strong communication skills will serve you well as
you enter the business world. Practice creating these communication documents to
enhance your proficiency in conveying information effectively within an organization.
 Unit-III

Business & Social Etiquette: Professional Conduct and Introductions

In a business setting, proper conduct and etiquette are essential for creating a positive
impression and fostering productive relationships. Understanding workplace hierarchy
and knowing how to make introductions are crucial aspects of navigating professional
interactions.

1. Workplace Hierarchy:
Understanding the hierarchy within your workplace helps you interact respectfully and
appropriately with colleagues and superiors. Here are some key points to consider:
 Respect Authority: Acknowledge the authority of your superiors and address
them by their appropriate titles (e.g., Mr., Ms., Dr., or their professional title).
 Chain of Command: Follow the chain of command when communicating or
seeking approvals. If you have a concern or request, it's best to go through the
appropriate channels.
 Open Communication: While respecting the hierarchy, most modern workplaces
encourage open communication across all levels. Don't hesitate to share your
ideas or concerns with your team and superiors.
 Professionalism: Maintain a professional demeanor at all times, regardless of
your position. Treat all colleagues with respect and courtesy.

2. Making Introductions:
Proper introductions set the tone for business relationships. Here's a guide to making
introductions effectively:
 Initiator: The person initiating the introduction should always be introduced first.
 Name and Affiliation: State your name and affiliation clearly. For example,
"Hello, I'm [Your Name] from the [Your Department/Company Name]."
 Introduction of Others:
 Superior to Subordinate: When introducing a superior to a subordinate,
mention the superior's name first, followed by the subordinate's name. For
example, "Mr. Smith, I'd like you to meet Jane, our new team member."
 Client or Guest: Always introduce clients or guests first. "Jane, I'd like you
to meet our client, Mr. Johnson."
 Peer to Peer: When introducing colleagues of similar status, you can use
either person's name first. "John, this is Sarah. Sarah, meet John."
 Additional Information: If appropriate, add a little context to the introduction.
For example, mentioning a common interest or reason for the introduction can
facilitate conversation.
  Handshakes: In most professional settings, a firm handshake is the accepted form
of greeting. Maintain eye contact and offer a genuine smile.
 Remembering Names: If you struggle with remembering names, use memory
techniques or repeat the name during the conversation to reinforce your memory.
 Follow Up: After the introduction, engage in conversation and show genuine
interest in the other person. Follow up with a thank-you email if the interaction
was significant.

3. Social Etiquette:
Outside of the workplace, social etiquette is also important, as it can reflect positively on
your professional image. Some tips include:
 Dress Appropriately: Dress according to the occasion, whether it's a casual
networking event or a formal business dinner.
 Polite Conversation: Engage in polite and positive conversations. Avoid
controversial topics like politics or religion.
 Active Listening: Show interest in what others are saying by actively listening and
asking follow-up questions.
 Respect Personal Space: Respect others' personal space and cultural norms,
especially in greetings.
 Thank-You Notes: Send thank-you notes or emails after networking events or
meetings to express your appreciation for the interaction.
Mastering business and social etiquette enhances your professionalism and fosters
positive relationships, which are essential in your journey as a management professional.

Appropriate Business Attire, Telephone Etiquette, and Table Etiquette

Maintaining a professional image is crucial in the business world. It includes how you
present yourself through attire, how you communicate over the phone, and how you
conduct yourself during business meals. Here are some key notes on these aspects:

1. Appropriate Business Attire:

 Dress Code: Follow your company's dress code policy. When in doubt, it's better
to be slightly overdressed than underdressed.
 Formal vs. Business Casual: Understand the difference between formal attire
(suits, ties, formal dresses) and business casual (polished but less formal attire).
 Fit and Comfort: Your clothes should fit well and be comfortable. Avoid attire that
is too tight, too loose, or distracting.
 Neatness: Keep your attire clean, pressed, and in good condition. Attention to
detail matters.
 Accessories: Keep accessories minimal and tasteful. Avoid excessive jewelry,
flashy ties, or overly bold patterns.
2. Telephone Etiquette:
 Answering Calls: Answer promptly and with a professional tone. Identify yourself
and your company when answering.
 Smile While Speaking: Even though the other person can't see you, smiling while
speaking can make your tone friendlier.
 Clear and Polite Speech: Speak clearly, and avoid speaking too fast or too softly.
Be polite and use appropriate language.
 Active Listening: Give the caller your full attention. Avoid multitasking or
sounding disinterested.
 Hold and Transfer: When placing a caller on hold, ask for permission and thank
them. When transferring, provide information about who the caller will be
speaking to.
 Voicemail: Keep your voicemail message professional and updated with relevant
information.

3. Table Etiquette:
 Napkin: Place the napkin on your lap when seated. Use it to wipe your mouth, not
your face.
 Utensils: Work from the outermost utensils inward. Fork on the left, knife on the
right, with the blade facing inward.
 Elbows: Keep your elbows off the table while eating. Rest your wrists at the
table's edge when not using utensils.
 Chewing and Talking: Chew with your mouth closed and avoid speaking while
chewing.
 Cutlery Placement: When finished, place your knife and fork diagonally across the
plate, with the handles at 4 o'clock and the tips at 10 o'clock.
 Ordering: Follow the lead of your host when ordering, and choose something
that's easy to eat without making a mess.
 Small Talk: Engage in polite conversation, avoiding controversial topics. Listen
actively to others.
 Cell Phones: Keep your phone off the table or on silent mode. Excuse yourself if
you need to take a call.
Remember, your professional image reflects your values and approach to your work. By
mastering appropriate attire, telephone etiquette, and table manners, you enhance your
reputation as a respectful and polished professional.

Introduction to Business Letters: Writing Routine and Persuasive Letters, Positive and
Negative Messages
Business letters are a formal means of communication used in various professional
contexts. They are written to convey information, make requests, provide responses, or
influence the recipient's actions. Here's an overview of writing routine and persuasive
letters, as well as crafting positive and negative messages within them:

1. Routine Business Letters:

Routine business letters are used for everyday communication within an organization or
with external parties. They include:
 Heading: Your address and the date.
 Inside Address: The recipient's name, title, company name, and address.
 Salutation: A formal greeting addressing the recipient (e.g., "Dear Mr. Smith").
 Body: The main content of the letter, conveying information, instructions, or
requests.
 Closing: A formal closing phrase (e.g., "Sincerely").
 Signature: Your typed name followed by your handwritten signature.
 Enclosures: List any enclosed documents or materials.

2. Persuasive Business Letters:

Persuasive letters aim to convince the recipient to take a specific action or agree with a
particular point of view. They often use strategies such as presenting benefits and
addressing objections. Elements of persuasive letters include:
 Attention: Capture the reader's attention in the opening paragraph.
 Interest: Highlight the benefits or advantages of your proposal.
 Desire: Build desire by explaining how the proposal meets the recipient's needs or
desires.
 Action: Clearly state the desired action you want the recipient to take and provide
a call to action.
 Closing: Use a polite closing and reiterate the call to action.

3. Positive Messages:
Positive messages convey good news, congratulations, or appreciation. They should be
delivered with a warm and friendly tone. Key points include:
 Direct Opening: Deliver the positive news right away.
 Details: Provide relevant details that emphasize the positive aspect.
 Gratitude or Congratulations: Express your appreciation or offer congratulations
sincerely.
 Friendly Tone: Keep the tone positive and upbeat.

4. Negative Messages:
Negative messages convey bad news, refusals, or disappointments. It's important to
convey the information sensitively and provide alternatives or solutions if possible.
Elements of crafting negative messages include:
  Buffer: Begin with a neutral or positive statement to ease into the negative news.
 Explain: Clearly and concisely explain the negative news or decision.
 Reasoning: If appropriate, provide reasons or explanations for the decision.
 Positive Elements: Include any positive aspects or alternative solutions, if
applicable.
 Empathy: Express empathy and understanding for the recipient's feelings.
 Closing: Maintain a professional tone and provide any necessary follow-up steps
or information.
Remember, regardless of the type of business letter, maintain a professional tone, use
clear and concise language, and proofread for errors before sending. Effective business
letters are a powerful tool for communicating in the professional world.

Writing Memos
A memorandum, commonly known as a memo, is a concise internal communication tool
used within organizations to convey information, updates, requests, or decisions. Here's
a breakdown of the format and key notes for writing effective memos:

1. Memo Format:
A memo typically follows a specific format to ensure clarity and professionalism:
 Heading: Include "MEMORANDUM" or "MEMO" at the top of the page, along
with the date and the names of the sender and recipient.
 To: List the names and titles of the recipients.
 From: Include your name and title as the sender.
 Subject: Provide a brief and clear subject line that summarizes the purpose of the
memo.
 Date: Include the date of the memo.
 Body: This is the main content of the memo. It should be concise and organized,
with clear headings, bullet points, or paragraphs.
 Closing: End the memo with a formal closing, such as "Sincerely" or "Best
regards."
 Attachments: If you're attaching any documents, list them at the bottom of the
memo.

2. Notes for Writing Memos:

When writing a memo, keep the following points in mind:
 Clear Purpose: State the purpose of the memo in the subject line. Make sure
readers understand the main topic immediately.
 Concise Content: Memos are meant to be brief and to the point. Stick to the key
information and avoid unnecessary details.
  Structured Content: Use headings, bullet points, or numbered lists to organize
information. This makes the memo easy to read and understand.
 Informative Opening: Begin the memo with a brief opening that introduces the
topic and provides context.
 Actionable Information: If the memo requires recipients to take action, clearly
outline the steps they need to follow.
 Neutral Tone: Maintain a professional and neutral tone in your writing. Avoid
using overly formal or casual language.
 Address Recipients: Use "To" and "From" fields to address the recipients and
yourself properly.
 Brevity: Keep the memo as concise as possible while conveying the necessary
information.
 Use of Attachments: If you need to provide additional information, mention
attachments at the end of the memo.
 Proofread: Always proofread your memo for spelling, grammar, and formatting
errors before sending it out.
 Relevance: Ensure that the content of the memo is relevant to the recipients and
aligns with the purpose of the communication.
 Consider Audience: Tailor the tone and content of the memo to the intended
audience's level of understanding and familiarity with the topic.
 Follow Up: If the memo requires follow-up actions or responses, provide
appropriate contact information.
Writing effective memos is a valuable skill in the business world. By following the proper
format and considering the key notes mentioned above, you can create memos that
convey information clearly and professionally.

Business Report writing

Formal business reports have important functions in helping managers and executives
make decisions. These documents can have a variety of purposes depending on your
needs and industry. Learning how to write a formal business report can help you develop
as a professional.

What is a formal business report?

A formal business is an official document that contains data, research, information and
other necessary details to help decision-makers form plans and objectives to help the
company. Depending on the topic, a formal business report could be several pages long
and include extensive data and information. Here are a few of the most common types
of formal business reports, designated by a purpose:

Justification/recommendation report
You can use this report to propose an idea to management. The body would include
sections like risks, costs and benefits. An example of this type of report would be to
propose buying a machine for your workplace. To convince the decision-maker to buy the
machine, you would create this report to make a convincing argument.

Investigative report
This report can present the potential risks of a specific opportunity. This report is helpful
for business owners to anticipate any issues involved in making an investment or
purchase. You could also create a formal business report to analyze a proposed merger.

Compliance report
Use this report when the organization wants to show accountability and create a
compliance report. It is a report that allows an organization to prove that it is following
regulations and that it is spending money properly. For example, an accountant could
write a compliance report to show the company followed federal laws regarding
spending.

Feasibility report
When you need to analyze the outcomes of a proposed idea, you can use this report. The
report could cover potential problems, associated costs and the benefits of the idea.
With this report, you can determine if the proposal will be profitable, if the deadline is
feasible and if there's a chance it could exceed the budget.

Research studies report

This report helps you analyze a problem. The report would include recommendations to
resolve the problems.
Periodic report
This report helps an organization improve its products, services, processes or policies.
The report can include things like profit and loss information or it may examine
efficiency. For instance, a retail store would have a monthly report on its sales.
Situational report
To discuss a specific topic, such as information from a conference, use a situational
report.

How to write a formal business report

Follow this step-by-step guide to create a professional business report:

1. Plan before you write

Treat the formal business report as you would handle a project. Before you start
compiling research and writing down sections, plan exactly what you want to achieve. In
doing so, you will have a better chance of creating a report in a clear and simple style.

2. Check for an in-house format

The company you work for may already have an established format for formal business
reports. Check your company handbook or ask the person who wants the report to see if
there's a specific format you should use. Using an established format will help your
report look more professional.

3. Add a title
You might get the title of the report with the brief or you may write it yourself. Make
sure the title is clear and visible at the beginning of the report. You should also add your
name and the names of others who have worked on the report & the date you wrote it.

4. Write a table of contents

The table of contents page should follow the title and authors. The table of contents
page is essential for a formal report that is long and complex. Although this page comes
at the start of the report, it should be written last when the report is finished. Write
down the section headings exactly as they appear in each section of the report and make
sure the page numbers match too.

5. Add a summary or abstract

The summary summarizes the main points of a formal business report. It can be
beneficial for the reader to have this section, but it is not mandatory, especially if your
report is short. It is best to ask the person who has requested the business report if they
prefer a summary or abstract. Although the summary comes at the beginning of the
report, you should write it last, along with the contents page, so that you can include
notes from your conclusion and recommendations section.
The summary should tell the reader about your findings and even draw on points from
your conclusion. A brief overview of what the reader will find in the report is also
important. Your manager may only have time to read the summary of the report, so it
must describe the major points found in the report.

6. Write an introduction
This section will detail the reason why you are writing the report. The introduction
should address the purpose of the report and background information on the subject you
are writing about. Include any definitions and summarize the main argument.

7. Outline your methodology

The methodology section should explain to the reader the research methods you have
chosen to create this report, such as using a qualitative method, a quantitative method
or a combination of both. It should be a clear justification of why you chose to use
certain methods.

8. Present your findings

This section is where you should present the outcome of your research. It is important to
present your results logically and succinctly while making sure that you have included
enough information to prove that you have researched the matter thoroughly.
One way of making the findings easier to read is by using headings, subheadings and
numbered sections to organize everything. You can choose to present your findings in
bullet points or with the help of a table. You might also choose to present your findings
with illustrations and graphics—such as infographics—but be sure that these graphics
are appropriate for the report.

9. Finish with a conclusion and recommendations

In this section, you would present your assessment from the findings, then make
recommendations for action. If you add any goals, you should add measurable actions to
them. Each goal, method or option suggested should tell the reader how it will affect the
organization.

10. Add a bibliography and appendices

Include all of the sources you have used to write the report. These can include
periodicals, online articles or books. List the sources in alphabetical order. You can also
include all of the material to support the report. These may include questionnaires,
maps, notes, summaries, charts, tables, illustrations and others. Label each note, map
and other documents with a letter so that you can reference them clearly in the report.

11. Proofread
Once you're finished writing your report, proofread it to make sure it's free of any
grammatical or spelling errors, which will make your report more credible. Moreover, be
clear and concise when writing. Avoid complex words and slang. It is acceptable to use
jargon and technical terms appropriate to the industry you are in, but avoid overusing
them. Make sure that the writing flows from one section to another, especially if there
was more than one author on the report.
Components of a Business Report
 Title Page
 Table of Contents: Depending on the length of the report, you might want to
consider including a table of contents. This will make finding specific information
easier for readers.
  Summary: This section includes a brief overview of the main points of the report
and is usually a few sentences to a paragraph in length. If someone were to read
this section, they would have an idea of the main takeaways from each section of
the report.
o Tip: Even though this is the first section, consider writing this section after
you have finished the report. This will help you determine which points are
the most important to address.
 Introduction: This section outlines what you will be going over in your report. It
includes the main points, chosen report structure, and, most importantly, the
objective of your report.
 Body: The body is where you discuss the points of your report in detail. This
section is divided by headings that inform your reader what information can be
found in the following paragraph/s. The structure of this section will vary
depending on the type of report, information/data you are relaying to the
company, and whether or not a deep analysis is necessary.
o Examples of headings:
o Methods
o Findings
o Research
o Analysis
o Graphs
 Conclusion: In the conclusion, be sure to briefly summarize all of the main points
in the order they were presented in the report.
 Recommendations: This section is where you provide your recommendations or
suggestions based on the findings you noted in earlier sections. Indicate the
potential benefits for the company to applying your suggestions.
 References: Be sure to cite all sources used in the report in this section.
 Appendices: In the Appendix, you can add relevant documents, surveys, graphs,
etc. that you referenced in the report.

Formal business report example

Here's a sample formal business report that you can review as a guide:

Report on Staff Turnover in GHS Corporation

Submitted Aug. 8, 2019

Introduction
The human resources manager requested this report to examine the high turnover rate
of employees at GHS Corporation. The information in this report was gathered by
members of the human resources department over three months. The five-member team
analyzed administration records and working conditions, as well as interviewed staff. In
this report, recommendations are made to minimize the high turnover rate among the
staff working at GHS Corporation.

Background
GHS Corporation has been operating for 10 years. It employs 200 people, with most of
the employees tasked with processing fees for insurance clients. Despite operating in a
region with substantial unemployment, the annual turnover has been between 60 to
65% every year.

Findings
The most significant issue found by the HR team when interviewing staff was the lack of
support to new mothers who require child care services to be able to come to work.
Employees mentioned their frustration at not having an in-house child care system that
could help them continue working.
Another issue mentioned by the staff was the lack of communication between employees
and upper management. They expressed their concerns about receiving inconsistent and
late instructions. They shared how they didn't know the main business objectives which
led them to lose interest in the company and their jobs.
Conclusions
The main issues that we found were as follows:
1. Lack of support to new mothers in regards to childcare
2. Lack of communication between the staff and upper management

Recommendations
To address these two main issues, we recommend the following steps be taken:
1. An in-house childcare center can be established at minimal cost to GHS, encouraging
mothers to return to work.
2. Each department should choose an employee ambassador to represent the interests
of staff in management meetings. This ambassador can express concerns and relay
outcomes to their teams to increase engagement.
Example - Report
 Unit – IV
Group Communication in Business: Effective Meeting Planning and Leadership
In the context of business communication, conducting successful meetings is essential for
collaboration, decision-making, and achieving organizational goals. Here's a
comprehensive guide to planning and leading effective meetings in a business setting:

Planning Meetings:

Objectives:
Clearly define the purpose of the meeting. Is it a project update, strategic planning,
problem-solving, or brainstorming session?

Participants:
Identify the key stakeholders and relevant team members who need to be present based
on the meeting's objectives.

Agenda:
Create a detailed agenda with specific topics, time allocations, and responsible
individuals for each agenda item.

Materials and Preparation:

Gather necessary documents, reports, data, or presentations that will be discussed
during the meeting. Share these materials with participants ahead of time.

Timing:
Choose a date and time that accommodates participants' schedules. Avoid scheduling
meetings during critical work hours or conflicting appointments.

Venue:
Select an appropriate physical or virtual venue. Ensure it is equipped with necessary
technology and facilities for seamless communication.

Leading Meetings:
Start on Time:
Begin the meeting promptly to respect participants' time. This sets a tone of
professionalism and efficiency.

Introductions and Icebreakers:

Begin with introductions, especially if participants are not familiar with each other.
Consider using a brief icebreaker to encourage engagement.
Agenda Review:
Outline the meeting's agenda to provide an overview of what will be discussed. Highlight
key goals and expected outcomes.

Time Management:
Stick to the allocated time for each agenda item. If discussions deviate from the topic,
gently steer them back on track or suggest tabling the discussion for later.

Engagement:
Encourage active participation from all attendees. Use techniques like asking questions,
seeking input, and managing any dominant speakers.

Decision-Making:
Clearly articulate decisions that need to be made. Encourage constructive debates and
strive for consensus when appropriate.

Action Items and Accountability:

Summarize action items, responsibilities, and deadlines at the end of each agenda item.
This ensures clarity on next steps and accountability.

Summarize and Conclude:

Provide a concise summary of key discussions and decisions. Reiterate action items and
responsibilities for follow-up.

Feedback and Follow-Up:

Solicit feedback on the meeting's effectiveness and note any suggestions for
improvement. Share meeting minutes or a summary with action items and deadlines.

Timing and Venue:

Timing:
Choose a time that accommodates participants across different time zones if applicable.
Aim for a time when participants are most alert and engaged.

Venue:
If in-person, select a convenient and comfortable location with necessary amenities. For
virtual meetings, use reliable video conferencing platforms and share relevant links.
Leading effective meetings in a business context requires strong facilitation skills, clear
communication, and the ability to manage group dynamics. By planning meticulously,
adhering to agendas, encouraging participation, and fostering a collaborative
atmosphere, you can ensure that your business meetings contribute to productive
outcomes and successful communication within the organization.

Media management – the press release- press conference – media interviews, Seminars
– workshops – conferences in business communication notes
ChatGPT

Media Management and Communication in Business

Effective media management is essential for maintaining a positive public image and
conveying important information to the public and stakeholders. Here's an overview of
key concepts related to media management in business communication:

1. Press Release:
A press release is an official statement issued to the media to announce news, events,
product launches, or organizational changes. It is written in a journalistic style and aims
to capture the attention of reporters and editors. Key points:
 Format: Begin with a catchy headline followed by a concise summary (the "lead").
Include details in the body paragraphs.
 Content: Answer the "Five W's" (Who, What, Where, When, Why) and "How."
Include quotes from relevant individuals.
 Contact Information: Provide a media contact's name, phone number, and email
for follow-up inquiries.

2. Press Conference:
A press conference is a formal event where an organization presents information to the
media and responds to questions. It's suitable for major announcements or crisis
management. Key points:
 Preparation: Plan the event logistics, including venue, timing, seating, and
technical equipment.
 Speakers: Select appropriate spokespersons who can deliver clear and concise
messages.
 Q&A Session: Allocate time for media representatives to ask questions. Prepare
answers in advance for anticipated inquiries.
 Control: Maintain control over the event to ensure it stays on topic and within the
allotted time.

3. Media Interviews:
Media interviews allow organizations to share their perspective, expertise, or news.
Being well-prepared is crucial:
 Key Messages: Identify key messages you want to convey during the interview.
  Practice: Practice answering potential questions concisely and confidently.
 Stay on Message: Bridge back to your key messages if questions veer off-topic.
 Body Language: Maintain open and confident body language while speaking.

4. Seminars, Workshops, and Conferences:

Seminars, workshops, and conferences are valuable platforms for knowledge-sharing
and networking. Here's what you need to consider:
 Planning: Define the event's purpose, target audience, and desired outcomes.
 Speakers: Invite knowledgeable speakers who can provide valuable insights.
 Agenda: Develop a well-structured agenda with topics, speakers, and breaks.
 Promotion: Promote the event through various channels, including social media,
email, and industry networks.
 Logistics: Organize venue, registration, catering, and technical arrangements.
 Engagement: Encourage audience interaction through Q&A sessions, discussions,
and networking opportunities.
 Feedback: Collect feedback to evaluate the event's success and make
improvements for the future.

Conclusion:
Effective media management and successful event planning play vital roles in business
communication. By mastering press releases, press conferences, media interviews, and
event organization, businesses can effectively convey their messages, engage with
stakeholders, and enhance their public image.

Business Etiquette
Business etiquette encompasses the professional norms and behaviors that guide
interactions and communication within the business environment. Practicing proper
business etiquette is essential for building strong relationships, establishing a positive
reputation, and promoting effective communication. Here are some key points to
remember:

1. Professional Appearance:
 Dress appropriately for the business environment and adhere to the company's
dress code.
 Maintain good personal hygiene and grooming.
 Avoid overly casual or revealing attire.

2. Greetings and Introductions:

 Use proper titles (Mr., Ms., Dr.) and last names when addressing colleagues and
superiors.
  Offer a firm handshake, accompanied by eye contact and a smile, during
introductions.

3. Communication:
 Use clear and concise language in written and verbal communication.
 Be polite and respectful in all interactions.
 Use appropriate language and avoid slang or offensive language.
 Listen actively and avoid interrupting when others are speaking.

4. Email and Phone Etiquette:

 Respond promptly to emails and phone calls.
 Use a professional tone and format in emails.
 Avoid using all caps, excessive exclamation marks, and emoticons.

5. Meeting Etiquette:
 Arrive on time for meetings.
 Be prepared with any necessary materials or information.
 Avoid side conversations or distractions during meetings.
 Give your full attention to the speaker.

6. Dining Etiquette:
 Practice proper table manners during business meals.
 Wait for the host to begin eating before you start.
 Avoid speaking with food in your mouth and using your phone during meals.
 Follow the lead of the host when ordering food and drinks.

7. Networking:
 Approach networking events with a positive attitude.
 Introduce yourself with a clear and concise introduction.
 Ask open-ended questions to show genuine interest in others.
 Exchange business cards if appropriate.

8. Respect for Cultural Differences:

 Be aware of cultural norms and customs, especially when dealing with
international colleagues.
 Avoid making assumptions about cultural practices.

9. Handling Conflict:
 Address conflicts professionally and privately.
 Use "I" statements to express your feelings and concerns.
  Listen actively to the other person's perspective.

10. Thank-You Notes:

 Send thank-you notes after interviews, meetings, or when someone has done you
a favor.
 Express appreciation for the time and effort the other person has invested.

11. Technology Etiquette:

 Silence your phone during meetings and important conversations.
 Avoid checking your phone or emails while in conversation with others.

Practicing good business etiquette not only demonstrates your professionalism but also
contributes to a positive and respectful work environment. By following these guidelines,
you can build strong relationships, enhance your reputation, and navigate the business
world with confidence.

Presentation Basics: Understanding, Designing, and Visual Support

What is a Presentation?
A presentation is a structured communication process in which a speaker delivers
information to an audience using various visual and verbal tools. It is used to convey
ideas, share information, persuade, educate, or entertain.

Elements of a Presentation:
1. Content: The core information or message you want to convey to your audience.
2. Structure: Organizing the content logically with an introduction, main points, and
conclusion.
3. Delivery: How you convey the information verbally, including tone, pace, and
body language.
4. Visuals: Supporting materials such as slides, images, videos, and charts.
5. Engagement: Interaction with the audience through questions, discussions, and
activities.

Designing a Presentation:
1. Know Your Audience: Understand their knowledge level, interests, and needs to
tailor your content.
2. Define Objectives: Clearly state what you want to achieve with your presentation.
3. Create an Outline: Organize your content into main points and subpoints.
4. Visual Design: Choose a consistent and professional layout for your slides. Use
readable fonts and appropriate colors.
 5. Limit Text: Avoid dense paragraphs; use bullet points and concise phrases.
6. Use Images: Include relevant images that enhance understanding and
engagement.
7. Practice: Rehearse your presentation multiple times to become comfortable with
the content and delivery.

Advanced Visual Support for Business Presentations:

1. Infographics: Visual representations of data or complex concepts that simplify
understanding.
2. Videos: Short video clips can add depth and engagement to your presentation.
3. Interactive Slides: Use clickable elements, hyperlinks, or navigation to enhance
interactivity.
4. Animations: Simple animations can highlight key points or make transitions
smoother.
5. Virtual Reality (VR) or Augmented Reality (AR): Cutting-edge technologies for
immersive experiences.

Types of Visual Aids:

1. Slides: Use concise text, images, charts, and bullet points.
2. Charts and Graphs: Visual representations of data, like bar graphs, pie charts,
and line graphs.
3. Images: Relevant pictures that illustrate concepts or ideas.
4. Videos: Short video clips to demonstrate processes or engage the audience.
5. Props: Physical objects that you can hold or display to emphasize a point.
6. Handouts: Printed materials with additional information for the audience to refer
to.
Visual aids should complement your spoken words, not replace them. Keep them simple,
relevant, and engaging to enhance your presentation's impact

Negotiation Skills: Understanding, Process, and Strategies

What is Negotiation?
Negotiation is a process where two or more parties with differing interests come
together to reach an agreement or compromise. It's a dynamic interaction aimed at
resolving conflicts, making deals, or finding solutions that benefit all parties involved.

Nature and Need for Negotiation:

 Interdependence: Negotiation arises when parties need each other to achieve
their goals.
 Differing Interests: Parties have different objectives, priorities, and expectations.
  Resource Allocation: Negotiation is used to allocate resources fairly and
efficiently.
 Conflict Resolution: It helps resolve conflicts, find middle ground, and prevent
disputes.

Factors Affecting Negotiation:

1. Interests and Goals: Each party's objectives, needs, and priorities.
2. Power Dynamics: Relative power and influence of the parties involved.
3. Relationships: Existing rapport and history between the parties.
4. Information: Availability and accuracy of relevant information.
5. Alternatives: The options available if the negotiation fails.
6. Time Constraints: Deadlines that impact decision-making.
7. Culture: Cultural norms and communication styles.

Stages of the Negotiation Process:

1. Preparation:
 Define your goals, interests, and limits.
 Research the other party's interests and positions.
 Develop a strategy and identify potential concessions.

2. Discussion:
 Communicate your position clearly.
 Listen actively to the other party's perspective.
 Exchange information and explore common ground.

3. Clarification and Justification:

 Seek clarification on any unclear points.
 Justify your proposals using data and reasoning.

4. Bargaining:
 Make concessions while seeking concessions from the other party.
 Use creative problem-solving to find win-win solutions.

5. Closure:
 Summarize the agreed-upon terms.
 Document the agreement in writing.

6. Implementation:
 Fulfill the terms agreed upon.
 Monitor and ensure compliance.
Negotiation Strategies:
1. Collaboration: Work together to find solutions that satisfy both parties' interests.
2. Competition: Pursue your interests aggressively, aiming for the best outcome for
yourself.
3. Compromise: Find a middle ground by both parties making concessions.
4. Avoidance: Delay or avoid the negotiation when the timing isn't right.
5. Accommodation: Prioritize the other party's interests over yours.

Key Skills for Successful Negotiation:

1. Effective Communication: Clearly convey your points and actively listen to others.
2. Problem-Solving: Creatively find solutions that meet both parties' needs.
3. Emotional Intelligence: Understand and manage emotions, both yours and
others'.
4. Analytical Skills: Analyze information and alternatives critically.
5. Flexibility: Adapt your approach as the negotiation unfolds.
 Unit – V
Case Method Teaching and Learning

What is the case method? How can the case method be used to engage learners? What
are some strategies for getting started? This guide helps instructors answer these
questions by providing an overview of the case method while highlighting learner-
centered and digitally-enhanced approaches to teaching with the case method. The
guide also offers tips to instructors as they get started with the case method and
additional references and resources.

Case method teaching is an active form of instruction that focuses on a case and involves
students learning by doing. Cases are real or invented stories that include “an
educational message” or recount events, problems, dilemmas, theoretical or conceptual
issue that requires analysis and/or decision-making.

Case-based teaching simulates real world situations and asks students to actively
grapple with complex problems this method of instruction is used across disciplines to
promote learning, and is common in law, business, medicine, among other fields.

Types of cases and the learning they promote.

Type of Description Promoted
Case Learning
Directed Presents a scenario that is followed by discussion Understanding of
case using a set of “directed” / close-ended questions fundamental
that can be answered from course material. concepts,
principles, and
facts
Dilemma Presents an individual, institution, or community Problem solving
or decision faced with a problem that must be solved. Students and decision-
case 7 may be presented with actual historical outcomes making skills
after they work through the case.
Interrupted Presents a problem for students to solve in a Problem solving
case progressive disclosure format. Students are given skills
the case in parts that they work on and make
decisions about before moving on to the next part.
Analysis or Focuses on answering questions and analyzing the Analysis skills
issue case situation presented. This can include “retrospective”
cases that tell a story and its outcomes and have
students analyze what happened and why
alternative solutions were not taken.
Case Method Teaching and Learning at Columbia

Case method teaching has been found to improve student learning, to increase students’
perception of learning gains, and to meet learning objectives . Faculty have noted the
instructional benefits of cases including greater student engagement in their learning ,
deeper student understanding of concepts, stronger critical thinking skills, and an ability
to make connections across content areas and view an issue from multiple perspectives .
Through case-based learning, students are the ones asking questions about the case,
doing the problem-solving, interacting with and learning from their peers, “unpacking”
the case, analyzing the case, and summarizing the case. They learn how to work with
limited information and ambiguity, think in professional or disciplinary ways, and ask
themselves “what would I do if I were in this specific situation?”

The case method bridges theory to practice, and promotes the development of skills
including: communication, active listening, critical thinking, decision-making, and
metacognitive skills , as students apply course content knowledge, reflect on what they
know and their approach to analyzing, and make sense of a case.

Case Method Teaching Approaches

Though the case method has historical roots as an instructor-centered approach that
uses the Socratic dialogue and cold-calling, it is possible to take a more learner-centered
approach in which students take on roles and tasks traditionally left to the instructor.
Cases are often used as “vehicles for classroom discussion”. Students should be
encouraged to take ownership of their learning from a case. Discussion-based
approaches engage students in thinking and communicating about a case. Instructors
can set up a case activity in which students are the ones doing the work of “asking
questions, summarizing content, generating hypotheses, proposing theories, or offering
critical analyses” .
The role of the instructor is to share a case or ask students to share or create a case to
use in class, set expectations, provide instructions, and assign students roles in the
discussion. Student roles in a case discussion can include:

1. discussion “starters” get the conversation started with a question or posing the
questions that their peers came up with;
2. facilitators listen actively, validate the contributions of peers, ask follow-up
questions, draw connections, refocus the conversation as needed;
3. recorders take-notes of the main points of the discussion, record on the board,
upload to CourseWorks, or type and project on the screen; and
4. Discussion “wrappers” lead a summary of the main points of the discussion.
Prior to the case discussion, instructors can model case analysis and the types of
questions students should ask, co-create discussion guidelines with students, and ask for
students to submit discussion questions. During the discussion, the instructor can keep
time, intervene as necessary (however the students should be doing the talking), and
pause the discussion for a debrief and to ask students to reflect on what and how they
learned from the case activity.
Table 2 includes a few interactive case method approaches. Regardless of the approach
selected, it is important to create a learning environment in which students feel
comfortable participating in a case activity and learning from one another. See below for
tips on supporting student in how to learn from a case in the “getting started” section
and how to create a supportive learning environment in the Guide for Inclusive Teaching
at Columbia.

Strategies for Engaging Students in Case-Based Learning

Strategy Useful to… Role of the Students are Upon

Instructor asked to… completing this
case activity,
students will be
able to…
Debate or Trial Develop critical Structure (with Prepare to Work in teams
thinking skills guidelines) and argue either and prepare an
and encourage facilitate a side. Work in argument for
students to debate between teams to conflicting sides
challenge their two develop and of an issue.
existing diametrically present
assumptions. opposed views. arguments, and
Keep time and debrief the
ask students to debate.
reflect on their
experience.
Role play Understand Structure the Play a role Describe the
or Public diverse points role-play and found in a case, points of view
Hearing of view, facilitate the understand the of every
promote debrief. At the points of view stakeholder
creative close of the of stakeholders involved.
thinking, and activity, ask involved.
develop students to
empathy. reflect on what
they learned.
Jigsaw Promote peer- Form student Be responsible Facilitate case
to-peer groups, assign for learning and method
learning, and each group a then teaching materials for
get students to piece of the case case material to their peers.
own their to study. Form peers. Develop
learning. new groups with expertise for
an “expert” for part of the
each previous problem.
group. Facilitate
a debrief.
“Clicker Gauge your Instructor Respond to Articulate their
case” 15 / Au students’ presents a case questions using understanding
dience learning; get all in stages, a mobile device. of a case
Response students to punctuated with Reflect on why components.
Systems (ARS) respond to questions in Poll they responded
questions, and Everywhere that the way they
launch or students did and discuss
enhance a case respond to using with peers
discussion. a mobile device. seated next to
them.

Approaches to case teaching should be informed by course learning objectives, and can
be adapted for small, large, hybrid, and online classes. Instructional technology can be
used in various ways to deliver, facilitate, and assess the case method. For instance, an
online module can be created in CourseWorks (Canvas) to structure the delivery of the
case, allow students to work at their own pace, engage all learners, even those reluctant
to speak up in class, and assess understanding of a case and student learning. Modules
can include text, embedded media (e.g., using Panopto or Mediathread) curated by the
instructor, online discussion, and assessments. Students can be asked to read a case
and/or watch a short video, respond to quiz questions and receive immediate feedback,
post questions to a discussion, and share resources.

To ensure that students are learning from the case approach, ask them to pause and
reflect on what and how they learned from the case. Time to reflect builds your
students’ metacognition, and when these reflections are collected they provides you with
insights about the effectiveness of your approach in promoting student learning.

Well designed case-based learning experiences:

1) Motivate student involvement,
2) have students doing the work,
3) Help students develop knowledge and skills.
4) Have students learning from each other.

Designing a case-based learning experience should center on the learning objectives for
a course. The following points focus on intentional design.

Identify learning objectives, determine scope, and anticipate challenges.

 Why use the case method in your course? How will it promote student learning
differently than other approaches?
 What are the learning objectives that need to be met by the case method? What
knowledge should students apply and skills should they practice?
 What is the scope of the case? (a brief activity in a single class session to a
semester-long case-based course; if new to case method, start small with a single
case).
 What challenges do you anticipate (e.g., student preparation and prior
experiences with case learning, discomfort with discussion, peer-to-peer learning,
managing discussion) and how will you plan for these in your design?
 If you are asking students to use transferable skills for the case method (e.g.,
teamwork, digital literacy) make them explicit.

Determine how you will know if the learning objectives were met and develop a plan
for evaluating the effectiveness of the case method to inform future case teaching.

 What assessments and criteria will you use to evaluate student work or
participation in case discussion?
 How will you evaluate the effectiveness of the case method? What feedback will
you collect from students?
 How might you leverage technology for assessment purposes? For example, could
you quiz students about the case online before class, accept assignment
submissions online, use audience response systems (e.g., PollEverywhere) for
formative assessment during class?

Select an existing case, create your own, or encourage students to bring course-
relevant cases, and prepare for its delivery

 Where will the case method fit into the course learning sequence?
 Is the case at the appropriate level of complexity? Is it inclusive, culturally
relevant, and relatable to students?
  What materials and preparation will be needed to present the case to students?
(e.g., readings, audiovisual materials, set up a module in CourseWorks).

Plan for the case discussion and an active role

 What will your role be in facilitating case-based learning? How will you model
case analysis for your students? (e.g., present a short case and demo your
approach and the process of case learning)
 What discussion guidelines will you use that include your students’ input?
 How will you encourage students to ask and answer questions, summarize their
work, take notes, and debrief the case?
 If students will be working in groups, how will groups form? What size will the
groups be? What instructions will they be given? How will you ensure that
everyone participates? What will they need to submit? Can technology be
leveraged for any of these areas?
 Have you considered students of varied cognitive and physical abilities and how
they might participate in the activities/discussions, including those that involve
technology?

Do's and Don'ts for preparation for a case discussion:

Do's for Case Preparation

1. Do Understand the Objective
1. Clearly define the purpose of the case study
2. Align case preparation with learning objectives and expected outcomes

2. Do Thorough Background Research

1. Investigate the industry, company, and market context
2. Gather relevant data to inform your analysis

3. Do Use Frameworks and Models

1. Apply business frameworks to structure your analysis
2. Utilize established models to guide your decision-making process

4. Do Collaborate with Peers

1. Engage in group discussions and knowledge sharing
2. Leverage diverse perspectives for a comprehensive analysis

5. Do Prioritize Information
1. Identify and prioritize key issues within the case
2. Focus on critical information that directly impacts decision-making
6. Do Formulate Actionable Recommendations
1. Develop practical and feasible solutions
2. Consider the implementation feasibility of your recommendations

7. Do Practice Time Management

1. Allocate time wisely during case analysis
2. Prioritize tasks and stay focused on key aspects of the case

8. Do Participate Actively in Case Discussions

1. Contribute meaningfully to classroom discussions
2. Articulate your thoughts clearly and support your arguments with evidence

Don'ts for Case Preparation

1. Don't Jump to Conclusions

1. Avoid making hasty decisions without a thorough analysis
2. Take the time to consider multiple perspectives and possibilities
2. Don't Ignore Contextual Information
1. Consider the broader business environment and industry dynamics
2. Contextualize your analysis within the given scenario
3. Don't Overlook Quantitative Analysis
1. Integrate quantitative data into your decision-making process
2. Use financial metrics and analytical tools where applicable
4. Don't Disregard Alternative Solutions
1. Explore multiple solutions and scenarios
2. Acknowledge and address potential drawbacks and risks
5. Don't Neglect Presentation Skills
1. Communicate your analysis and recommendations clearly
2. Practice effective presentation skills for case discussions
6. Don't Rely Solely on Personal Experience
1. Base decisions on a combination of theory and practical insights
2. Balance personal experience with evidence-based analysis
7. Don't Underestimate the Importance of Reflection
1. Reflect on the learning from each case
2. Identify areas for improvement in your analytical and decision-making skills