MATHEMATICAL
MODULE 2.
LANGUAGE AND
SYMBOLS
MODULE 2. LESSON 2
FOUR BASIC
CONCEPTS
FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS
LANGUAGE OF SETS
LANGUAGE OF RELATIONS
LANGUAGE OF FUNCTIONS
LANGUAGE OF BINARY OPERATIONS
LANGUAGE
OF SETS
SETS THEORY
Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies
sets or the mathematical science of the infinite.
George Cantor (1845-1918) is
a German Mathematician
He is considered as the
founder of set theory as a
mathematical discipline.
SETS
A collection of well-defined objects.
We assume that the objects, or things, that
make up a set come from some “big” set that
is large enough to include all the objects we
might need. This big set is sometimes called
the “universal set” denoted by the letter U.
Individual objects in a set are elements, or
members, of the set. Capital letters are
generally used to name sets.
The elements of the set are listed inside a
pair of braces { }.
∈ ⇒ an element
∉ ⇒ not an element
EXAMPLE 1 A = {School days in a week}
A = {Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
Thursday, Friday}
Hence, Monday ∈ A However, Saturday ∉ A
Tuesday ∈ A Sunday ∉ A
Wednesday ∈ A
Thursday ∈ A
Friday ∈ A
EXAMPLE 1.2 B = {Counting Numbers less than 5}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Hence, 1, 2, 3, 4 ∈ B, however N ≤ 5 ∉ B.
EXAMPLE 1.3 C = {Primary Colors}
C = {Red, Blue, Yellow}
Hence, Red, Blue, Yellow ∈ C, however
all colors that are not primary ∉ C.
TRY THIS: Fill in the blank with ∈ or ∉.
A = {Prime Numbers greater than 11}
B = {Composite Number less than 16}
C = {Whole Numbers}
∈ A
1.) 43 ___ ∉ B
6.) 5 ___
2.) 0 ___∈ C ∈ C
7.) 99 ___
∉ C
3.) -15 ___ ∉ A
8.) 5 ___
4.) 4 ___∈ B ∉ B
9.) 55 ___
∈ C
5.) 16 ___ ∉ A
10) 1 ___
WELL-DEFINED SETS
A set is well-defined if there is no ambiguity as
to whether or not an object belongs to a set. A
set is defined so that we can always tell what is
and what is not a member of the set
EXAMPLE 2.1
A = {set of branches of Science}
B = {set of beautiful girls in ASCOT}
C = {set of Mathematics 3 Students in SOEd}
D = {set of exellent Ppop Groups}
E = {set of smart students in MSTC}
F = {set of SUC President in ASCOT}
EMPTY OR NULL SETS
A set with no members or elements. It is
denoted by the symbol { } for empty set and ∅.
EXAMPLE 3.1
A = {set of triangles with 4 sides}
B = {set of female SUC president in ASCOT}
C = {set of whole numbers that is negative}
D = {set of Natural number between 7 and 8}
CARDINALITY
Refers to the number of elements in a given
set. It is denoted by the symbol “n”.
“Cardinality of set A” is writer as n(A).
EXAMPLE 3.1
A = {set of schools in ASCOT}
A = {SOEd, SoAS, SABM, SoEn, SIT, SoIT, SFES, SAS, SFOS}
n(A) = 9
What if there is no element in a given set?
What will be its cardinality?
EXAMPLE 3.2
B = {set of female SUC president in ASCOT}
B = { } or ∅
n(B) = 0
ORDER OF ELEMENTS
The order in which the elements are written
makes no difference; each element is
listed only once. Thus, {1, 2, 3} and {3, 2, 1}
are considered to be the same set.
EXAMPLE 4.1
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {5, 4, 3, 2, 1}
SINGLETON SETS
Is a set that contain only 1 element.
EXAMPLE 5.1
A = {set of SUC president in ASCOT}
B = {set of Dean of SOEd}
C = {set moon of the earth}
FINITE & INFINITE SETS
If the set is finite—for example, the first four
positive numbers—we write S ={1, 2, 3, 4}.
If the set is large, maybe even infinite, one
way to describe the set is to list the first few
elements followed by ellipsis. For example, we
can write the set of the natural numbers N as
N={1,2,...}.
TRY THIS:
1. Give 2 examples in daily life which
are empty or null sets.
2. Give 2 examples in daily life which
are singleton sets.
3. Give 3 examples in daily life which
are finite sets.
4. Give 3 examples in daily life which
are infinite sets.
EQUAL & EQUIVALENT SETS
Two sets are equal if, and only if, they contain exactly the
same elements.
Two sets A and B are equivalent, written A∼ B, if, and only
if, there exists a one-to-one correspondence between the
sets.
EXAMPLE 6.1
A = {1, 3, 5} B = {2, 4, 6}
C = {3, 5, 1} D = {0,7}
TRY THIS:
A = {Geometry, Calculus, Trigonometry}
B = {Calculus, Algebra, Topology}
C = {Algebra, Topology, Statistics}
D = {Calculus, Trigonometry. Geometry}
E = {Algebra, Topology, Calculus, Graph Theory}
WAYS OF DEFINING A SET
Two common methods of describing sets are
the listing or roster method, and set-builder
notation.
EXAMPLE 7.1
A is a set of natural numbers less than 5.
A = {1, 2, 3, 4} → Listing or Roster Method
A = {x|x∈ ℕ, x<5} →Set-builder Notation
EXAMPLE 7.2
B = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}
B = {x|x is an odd number less than 10}
EXAMPLE 7.3
C = {A, P, L, E}
C = {x|x a letter in the word ‘APPLE’}
EXAMPLE 7.4
D = {12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24}
D = {x|x ∈ ℕ, 10<x<5, x is even}
EXAMPLE 7.5
E = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}
E = {x|x ∈ 𝕎, x<5}
ACTIVITY: Convert the listing or roster method to
set-builder notation and vice-versa.
NO. LISTING OR ROSTER METHOD SET-BUILDER NOTATION
1 M = {a, e, I, o, u}
2 A = {x|x is a odd numbers greater than 19}
3 D = {x|x is a multiple of 7}
4 A = {3, 6, 9, 12, …}
5 L = {January, June, July}
6 I = {x|x is a month in a year with 32 days}
7 L = {9, 16, 25, 36, …}
8 A = {x|x is an even natural number less than 20}
9 N = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
10 G = {x|x is an integer}
UNIVERSAL SET
The universal set is all sets under investigation in any
application of set theory that is assumed to be contained
in some largely fixed set, denoted by the symbol U.
EXAMPLE 8.1
U = {x|x is a positive integer}
U = {1, 2, 3, …, 100}
U = {x|x is an animal in Manila Zoo}
Venn
VENN DIAGRAM
Diagram is a pictorial presentation of relation and
operations on set.
Also known set diagrams, it show all hypothetically possible
logical relations between finite collections of sets.
Constructed with a collection of simple
closed curves drawn in the plane or
normally comprise of overlapping circles.
The interior of the circle symbolically
represents the elements (or members)
of the set, while the exterior represents
Introduced by John Venn in his paper "On the elements which are not members of the
Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation of
Propositions and Reasoning’s" set.
SUBSET
If A and B are sets, A is called a subset of B, if and only if,
every element of A is also an element of B.
Symbolically: A ⊆ B ⟺ ∀x, x ∈ A → x ∈ B.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose,
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A ⊆ B, since all elements of A
is in B.
PROPER SUBSET
Let A and B be sets. A is a proper subset of B, if and only if, every
element of A is in B but there is at least one element of B
that is not in A. The symbol ⊄ denotes that it is not a proper subset
Symbolically: A ⊂ B ⟺ ∀x, x ∈ A → x ∈ B.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose,
A = {c, d, e}
B = {a, b, c, d, e}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A ⊂ B, since all elements of A
are in B.
EQUAL SETS
Given set A and B, A equals B, written, if and only if, every
element of A is in B and every element of B is in A.
Symbolically: A = B ⟺ A ⊆ B ∧ B ⊆ A.
EXAMPLE:
Suppose,
A = {a, b, c, d, e}
B = {a, b, d, e, c}
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}
Then A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A, thus A = B.
POWER SET
Given a set S from universe U, the power set of S denoted by
℘(S), is the collection (or sets) of all subsets of S.
EXAMPLE: Determine the power set of A = {e, f}, and B = {1, 2, 3}.
A = {e, f}
℘(A) = {{e}, {f}, {e, f}, ∅}
B = {1, 2, 3}
℘(B) = {{1}, {2}, {3} {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}, ∅}
THEOREM OF SETS
Theorem 1.2: A Set with No Elements is a Subset of Every
Set: If ∅ is a set with no elements and A is any set, then
∅ ⊆ A.
Theorem 1.3: For all sets A and B, if A ⊆ B then ℘(A) ⊆
℘(B).
Theorem 1.4: Power Sets: For all integers n, if a set S has n
elements then ℘(S) has 2n elements.
OPERATIONS ON SETS
UNION
INTERSECTION
COMPLEMENT
DIFFERENCE
SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE
DISJOINT SETS
ORDERED PAIRS
UNION
The union of A and B, denoted A ∪ B, is the set of all elements x
in U such that x is in A or x is in B.
Symbolically: A ∪ B = {x|x ∈ A ∨ x ∈ B}.
ILLUSTRATION:
U = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} B = {0, 2, 4} C = {-3, -2, -1}
EXAMPLE 1:
A ∪ B = {-1, 0, 1, 2} ∪ {0, 2, 4}
A ∪ B = {-1, 0, 1, 2, 4}
EXAMPLE 2:
A ∪ C = {-1, 0, 1, 2} ∪ {-3, -2, -1}
A ∪ C = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2}
INTERSECTION
The intersection of A and B, denoted A ∩ B, is the set of all
elements x in U such that x is in A and x is in B.
Symbolically: A ∩ B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B}.
ILLUSTRATION:
U = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} B = {0, 2, 4} C = {-3, -2, -1}
EXAMPLE 1:
A ∩ B = {-1, 0, 1, 2} ∩ {0, 2, 4}
A ∩ B = {0, 2}
EXAMPLE 2:
A ∩ C = {-1, 0, 1, 2} ∩ {-3, -2, -1}
A ∩ C = {-1}
COMPLEMENT
The complement of A (or absolute complement of A), denoted
A’, is the set of all elements x in U such that x is not in A.
Symbolically: A’ = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}.
ILLUSTRATION:
U = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} B = {0, 2, 4} C = {-3, -2, -1}
EXAMPLE 1:
A’ = {-3, -2, 3, 4, 5}
EXAMPLE 2:
B’ = {-3, -2, -1, 1, 3, 5}
EXAMPLE 3:
C’ = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
DIFFERENCE
The difference of A and B (or relative complement of B with
respect to A), denoted A - B, is the set of all elements x in U
such that x is in A and x is not in B.
Symbolically: A - B = {x|x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B} = A ∩ B’
ILLUSTRATION:
U = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} B = {0, 2, 4} C = {-3, -2, -1}
EXAMPLE 1:
A - B = {-1, 0, 1, 2} - {0, 2, 4} = {-1, 1}
EXAMPLE 2:
A - C = {-1, 0, 1, 2} - {-3, -2, -1} = {0, 1, 2}
EXAMPLE 3:
B - C = {0, 2, 4} - {-3, -2, -1} = {0, 2, 4}
SYMMETRIC DIFFERENCE
If set A and B are two sets, their symmetric difference as the set
consisting of all elements that belong to A or to B, but not to
both A and B. Commonly denoted by Δ or ⊕.
Symbolically: A ⊕ B = {x|x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∧ x ∉ (A ∩ B )}
ILLUSTRATION:
U = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} B = {0, 2, 4} C = {-3, -2, -1}
EXAMPLE 1:
A ⊕ B = {-1, 0, 1, 2} ⊕ {0, 2, 4}
A ⊕ B = {-1, 1, 4}
EXAMPLE 2:
A ⊕ C = {-1, 0, 1, 2} ⊕ {-3, -2, -1}
A ⊕ C = {-3, -2, 0, 1, 2}
DISJOINT SETS
Two set are called disjoint (or non-intersecting) if and only if,
they have no elements in common.
Symbolically: A and B are disjoint ⟺ A ∩ B = ∅
ILLUSTRATION:
U = {-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A = {-1, 0, 1, 2} B = {0, 2, 4} C = {-3, -2, -1} D = {5}
EXAMPLE 1:
B ∩ C = {0, 2, 4} ∩ {-3, -2, -1}
B∩C=∅
EXAMPLE 2:
C ∩ D = {-3, -2, -1} ∩ {5}
C∩D=∅
EXAMPLE 3:
A ∩ D = {-1, 0, 1, 2} ∩ {5}
A∩D=∅
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
The Cartesian product of sets A and B, written AxB, is
AxB = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
EXAMPLE: Let A = {2, 3, 5} and B = {7, 8}. Find each set.
AxB = {(2, 7), (2, 8), (3, 7), (3, 8), (5, 7), (5, 8)}
BxA = {(7, 2), (7, 3), (7, 5), (8, 2), (8, 3), (8, 5)}
AxA = {(2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 2), (3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 5)}
LANGUAGE
OF
RELATIONS
RELATIONS
In general, any ordered pair in the coordinate plane can be written
in the form (x, y).
A relation is a set of ordered pairs.
The domain of a relation is the set of all first coordinates (x-
coordinates) from the ordered pairs.
The range of a relation is the set of all second coordinates (y-
coordinates) from the ordered pairs.
The graph of a relation is the set of points in the coordinate plane
corresponding to the ordered pairs in the relation.
EXAMPLE:
Given the relation: {(2, -6), (1, 4), (2, 4), (0, 0), (1, -6), (3, 0)}
State the Domain:
D: {2, 1, 0, 3} or {0, 1, 2, 3}
State the Range:
R: {-6, 4, 0} or {-6, 0, 4}
Note: { } are the symbols for a set.
When writing domain and range, do not repeat values.
TRY THIS:
Given the relation: {(2, -3), (4, 6), (3, -1), (6, 6), (2, 3)}
State the Domain:
D: {2, 4, 3, 6} or {2, 3, 4, 6}
State the Range:
R: {-3, 6, -1, 3} or {-3, -1, 3, 6}
Given the relation: {(-4, 3), (-1, 2), (0, -4), (2, 3), (3, -3)}
State the Domain:
D: {-4, -1, 0, 2, 3}
State the Range:
R: {3, 2, -4, -3} or {-4, -3, 2, 3}
Relation can be written in several ways: ordered pairs, table, graph
or mapping.
We have already seen relations represented as ordered pairs.
EXAMPLE:
Table Graph Mapping
LANGUAGE
OF
FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS
A function is a special type of relation in which each element of the
domain is paired with exactly one element in the range.
Furthermore, a set of ordered pairs is a function if no two ordered
pairs have equal abscissas.
EXAMPLE:
Domain Range A mapping shows how each member of the domain is
paired with each member in the range.
-3 1
{(-3, 1), (0, 2), (2, 4)}
0 2 ONE-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE
2 4 FUNCTION
EXAMPLE:
Domain Range A mapping shows how each member of the domain is
paired with each member in the range.
-1
5 {(-1, 5), (1, 3), (4, 5)}
1
3
MANY-TO-ONE CORRESPONDENCE
4 FUNCTION
EXAMPLE:
Domain Range A mapping shows how each member of the domain is
paired with each member in the range.
5 6
{(5, 6), (-3, 6), (-3, 0), (1, 1)}
-3 0 ONE-TO-MANY CORRESPONDENCE
1 1 NOT A FUNCTION
You can also use a vertical line test to determine whether
a relation is a function.
ACTIVITY:
Identify if the given relation is a function or not.
ACTIVITY:
Identify if the given relation is a function or not.
LANGUAGE
OF
BINARY
OPERATIONS
BINARY OPERATION
Following are the notations and definitions to represent the set of
number:
ℝ = Set of all real numbers
ℝ*= Set of all non-zero real numbers
ℚ = Set of all rational numbers
ℚ* = Set of all non-zero rational numbers
ℚ’ = Set of all irrational numbers
ℕ = Set of all natural numbers
ℤ = Set of all Integers
ℂ = Set of all complex numbers
BINARY OPERATION
Let S be a non-empty set. The mapping *: S x S → S which associates
each ordered pair (a, b) of the elements of S to a unique element of S,
denoted by a*b is called a binary operation or a binary composition on S.
That is:
An operation * on a non-empty set S is a binary operation if and
only if
∀a ∈ S, b ∈ S ⇒ a * b ∈ S
(S is closed under binary operation *)
EXAMPLE:
The usual addition (+) and multiplication (x) are binary
operations on the set of
ℕ of natural numbers ℤ of Integers
ℚ of rational numbers ℝ of real numbers
ℂ of complex numbers
EXAMPLE:
The usual subtraction (-) is not a binary operation on the
set of ℕ of natural numbers. For,
3 ∈ ℕ, 5 ∈ ℕ ⇒ 3 – 5 = -2 ∉ ℕ
LAWS OF BINARY OPERATION
A binary operation * a non-empty set S.
Is said to be commutative if
a*b=b*a ∀a, b ∈ S
Is said to be associative if
a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c ∀a, b, c ∈ S
Is said to have an identity element if ∃e ∈ S such that
e*a=a*e=a ∀a ∈ S
Is said to have an inverse element if ∃b ∈ S such that
a*b=b*a=e ∀a ∈ S, e ∈ S
EXAMPLE:
A binary operation * is defined on the set ℤ of integers by
a * b = 1 + ab ∀a, b ∈ ℤ. Show that * is commutative but
not associative.
Solution:
By definition, a * b = 1 + ab ∀a, b ∈ ℤ
Now, a * b = 1 + ab
b * a = 1 + ba
∴a*b=b*a
⇒ * is commutative.
Next:
Let a, b, c be any three elements of ℤ
Consider, a * (b * c) = a * (1 + bc)
a * (b * c) = a + abc
And, (a * b) * c = (1 + ab) * c
(a * b) * c = c + abc
∴ a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c
a + abc = c + abc
⇒ * is not associative.
THANK YOU
