Module-1

Software and Software Engineering

1.1 Software and Software Engineering

➢ Software engineering stands for the term is made of two words, Software and Engineering.
➢ Software is more than just a program code. A program is an executable code, which serves some
computational purpose. Software is considered to be collection of executable programming code, associated
libraries and documentations. Software, when made for a specific requirement is called software product.
➢ Engineering on the other hand, is all about developing products, using well-defined, scientific principles
and methods.
➢ Software engineering is an engineering branch associated with development of software product using
well-defined scientific principles, methods and procedures. The outcome of software engineering is an
efficient and reliable software product.

1.2 The Nature Of Software

Definitions:
IEEE defines software engineering as:
(1) The application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable approach to the development, operation and
maintenance of software; that is, the application of engineering to software.
(2) The study of approaches as in the above statement.
Fritz Bauer, a German computer scientist, defines software engineering as:
Software engineering is the establishment and use of sound engineering principles in order to obtain
economically software that is reliable and work efficiently on real machines.
➢ Software takes Dual role of Software. It is a Product and at the same time a Vehicle for delivering a
product.
➢ Software delivers the most important product of our time is called information.
➢ As a product, it delivers the computing potential embodied by computer hardware or more broadly.
➢ Software is an information transfer – producing, managing, acquiring, modifying, displaying or transmitting
information that can be as simple as a single bit or as complex.
➢ It transforms personal data so that the data can be more useful in a local context.
➢ It manages business information to enhance competitiveness.
➢ Software provides a gateway to worldwide information networks.

Defining Software
Software is defined as:
1. Instructions : Programs that when executed provide desired function, features, and performance
2. Data structures : Enable the programs to adequately manipulate information
3. Documents: Descriptive information in both hard copy and virtual forms that describes the operationand
use of the programs.

1.3 Characteristics of software

Software has characteristics that are considerably different than those of hardware:
1. Software is developed or engineered; it is not manufactured in the Classical Sense.
Although some similarities exist between software development and hardware manufacture, the two
activities are fundamentally different. In both the activities, high quality is achieved through good design, but
the manufacturing phase for hardware can introduce quality problems that are nonexistent or easily corrected
for software. Both the activities are dependent on people, but the relationship between people is totally
varying. These two activities require the construction of a "product" but the approaches are different.
Software costs are concentrated in engineering which means that software projects cannot be managed.
 2. Software doesn’t “Wear Out”
The following figure shows the relationship between failure rate and time. Consider the failure rate as a
function of time for hardware. The relationship is called the bathtub curve, indicates that hardware exhibits
relatively high failure rates early in its life, defects are corrected and the failure rate drops to a steady-state level
for some period of time. As time passes, however, the failure rate rises again as hardware components suffer
from the cumulative effects of dust, vibration, abuse, temperature extremes, and many other environmental
maladies. So, stated simply, the hardware begins to wear out. Software is not susceptible to the environmental
maladies that cause hardware to wear out.

Fig. Failure curve for hardware

Fig. Failure curves for software

3. Although the industry is moving toward component-based construction, most software
continues to be custom built
A software component should be designed and implemented so that it can be reused in many different
programs. Modern reusable components encapsulate both data and the processing that is applied to the data,
enabling the software engineer to create new applications from reusable parts.
 1.4 Software Application Domains:
Seven Broad Categories of software are challenges for software engineers:

(a) System software: A collection of programs written to service other programs. Some systemsoftware
(e.g., compilers, editors, and file management utilities)

(b)Application software: Stand-alone programs that solve a specific business need. Application
software is used to control business functions in real time (e.g., point-of-sale transaction processing, real-
time manufacturing process control).

(c)Engineering/scientific software: It has been characterized by “number crunching” algorithms.

Applications range from astronomy to volcanology, from automotive stress analysis to space shuttle orbital
dynamics, and from molecular biology to automated manufacturing.

(d)Embedded software: It resides within a product or system and is used to implement and control features
and functions for the end user and for the system itself. Embedded software can perform limited and esoteric
functions (e.g., key pad control for a microwave oven) or provide significant function and control capability
(e.g., digital functions in an automobile such as fuel control, dashboard displays, and braking systems).
(e)Product-line software: Designed to provide a specific capability for use by many different customers.
Product-line software can focus on a limited and esoteric marketplace (e.g., inventory control products) or
address mass consumer markets (e.g., word processing, spreadsheets, computer graphics, multimedia,
entertainment, database management, and personal and business financial applications).

(f)Web applications: These Applications called “WebApps,” this network-centric software category spans a
wide array of applications. In their simplest form, WebApps can be little more than a set of linked hypertext
files that present information using text and limited graphics.

(g)Artificial intelligence software: These makes use of non numerical algorithms to solve complex problems
that are not amenable to computation or straightforward analysis. Applications within this area include
robotics, expert systems, pattern recognition (image and voice), artificial neural networks, theorem proving,
and game playing.

New Software Challenges:

➢ Open-world computing : Creating software to allow machines of all sizes to communicate with each
other across vast networks (Distributed computing—wireless networks)
➢ Net sourcing : Architecting simple and sophisticated applications that benefit targeted end-user markets
worldwide (the Web as a computing engine)
➢ Open Source : Distributing source code for computing applications so customers can make local
modifications easily and reliably ( “free” source code open to the computing community)

1.5 Legacy Software:

• Legacy software is older programs that are developed decades ago.
• The quality of legacy software is poor because it has inextensible design, convoluted code, poor
and nonexistent documentation, test cases and results that are not achieved.

As time passes legacy systems evolve due to following reasons:

• The software must be adapted to meet the needs of new computing environment or technology.
• The software must be enhanced to implement new business requirements.
• The software must be extended to make it interoperable with more modern systems or database
• The software must be re-architected to make it viable within a network environment
 1.6 UNIQUE NATURE OF WEB APPS:
In the early days of the World Wide Web, websites consisted of little more than a set of linked hypertext files
that presented information using text and limited graphics. As time passed, the augmentation of HTML by
development tools (e.g., XML, Java) enabled Web engineers to provide computing capability along with
informational content. Web-based systems and applications (WebApps) were born. Today, WebApps have
evolved into sophisticated computing tools that not only provide stand-alone function to the end user, but also
have been integrated with corporate databases and business applications.
WebApps are one of a number of distinct software categories. Web-based systems and applications
“involve a mixture between print publishing and software development, between marketing and
computing, between internal communications and external relations, and between art and technology.” The
following attributes are encountered in the vast majority of WebApps.

• Network intensiveness. A WebApp resides on a network and must serve the needs of a diverse community
of clients. The network may enable worldwide access and communication (i.e., the Internet) or more limited
access and communication (e.g., a corporate Intranet).

• Concurrency. A large number of users may access the WebApp at one time. In many cases, the patterns of
usage among end users will vary greatly.

• Unpredictable load. The number of users of the WebApp may vary by orders of magnitude from day to
day. One hundred users may show up on Monday; 10,000 may use the system on Thursday.
• Performance. If a WebApp user must wait too long, he or she may decide to go elsewhere.

• Availability. Although expectation of 100 percent availability is un reasonable, users of popular

WebApps often demand access on a 24/7/365 basis

• Data driven. The primary function of many WebApps is to use hypermedia to present text, graphics, audio,
and video content to the end user. In addition, WebApps are commonly used to access information that exists
on databases that are not an integral part of the Web-based environment (e.g., e-commerce or financial
applications).

• Content sensitive. The quality and aesthetic nature of content remains an important determinant of the
quality of a WebApp.
• Continuous evolution. Unlike conventional application software that evolves over a series of planned,
chronologically spaced releases, Web applications evolve continuously.

• Immediacy. Although immediacy—the compelling need to get software to market quickly—is a

characteristic of many application domains, WebApps often exhibit a time-to-market that can be a matter of a
few days or weeks.

• Security. Because WebApps are available via network access, it is difficult, if not impossible, to limit the
population of end users who may access the application. In order to protect sensitive content and provide
secure modes

• Aesthetics. An undeniable part of the appeal of a WebApp is its look and feel. When an application has
been designed to market or sell products or ideas, aesthetics may have as much to do with success as
technical design.
1.7 SOFTWARE ENGINEERING - A LAYERED TECHNOLOGY
In order to build software that is ready to meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, you must
recognize a few simple realities
• Problem should be understood before software solution is developed
• Design is a pivotal Software Engineering activity
• Software should exhibit high quality
• Software should be maintainable
These simple realities lead to one conclusion. Software in all of its forms and across all of its application
domains should be engineered.
Software Engineering is a layered technology. Software Engineering encompasses a Process, Methods
for managing and engineering software and tools.
The following Figure represents Software engineering Layers

Software engineering is a layered technology. Referring to above Figure, any engineering approach must rest
on an organizational commitment to quality.

 The bedrock that supports software engineering is a quality focus.

 The foundation for software engineering is the process layer. The software engineering process is the
glue that holds the technology layers together and enables rational and timely development of
computer software. Process defines a framework that must be established for effective delivery of
software engineering technology.
 Software engineering methods provide the technical how-to’s for building software. Methods
encompass a broad array of tasks that include communication, requirements analysis, design
modeling, program construction, testing, and support.
 Software engineering tools provide automated or semi automated support for the process and the
methods. When tools are integrated so that information created by one tool can be used by another, a
system for the support of software development, called computer-aided software engineering, is
established.
1.8 THE SOFTWARE PROCESS
A process is a collection of activities, actions, and tasks that are performed when some work product is to
be created.
An activity strives to achieve a broad objective (e.g., communication with stakeholders) and is applied
regardless of the application domain, size of the project, complexity of the effort, or degree of rigor with
which software engineering is to be applied.
An action encompasses a set of tasks that produce a major work product (e.g., an architectural design model).
A task focuses on a small, but well-defined objective (e.g., conducting a unit test) that produces a tangible
outcome.

1.8.1 The process framework:

A process framework establishes the foundation for a complete software engineering process by identifying a
small number of framework activities that are applicable to all software projects, regardless of their size or
complexity. In addition, the process framework encompasses a set of umbrella activities that are applicable
across the entire software process.
A generic process framework for software engineering encompasses five activities:

• Communication. Before any technical work can commence, it is critically important to communicate and
collaborate with the customer. The intent is to understand stakeholders objectives for the project and to gather
requirements that help define software features and functions.

• Planning. Any complicated journey can be simplified if a map exists. A software project is a complicated
journey, and the planning activity creates a “map” that helps guide the team as it makes the journey. The
map—called a software project plan—defines the software engineering work by describing the technical
tasks to be conducted, the risks that are likely, the resources that will be required, the work products to be
produced, and a work schedule.

• Modeling. Creation of models to help developers and customers understand the requires and software
design

• Construction. This activity combines code generation and the testing that is required to uncover errors in
the code.
• Deployment. The software is delivered to the customer who evaluates the delivered product and provides
feedback based on the evaluation.

1.8.2 Umbrella Activities:

These five generic framework activities can be used during the development of small, simple programs, the
creation of large Web applications, and for the engineering of large, complex computer-based systems.
Software engineering process framework activities are complemented by a number of Umbrella Activities.
In general, umbrella activities are applied throughout a software project and help a software team manage
and control progress, quality, change, and risk. Typical umbrella activities include:

• Software project tracking and control—allows the software team to assess progress against the project
plan and take any necessary action to maintain the schedule.

• Risk management—assesses risks that may affect the outcome of the project or the quality of the
product.

• Software quality assurance—defines and conducts the activities required to ensure software quality.
• Technical reviews—assesses software engineering work products in an effort to uncover and remove errors
before they are propagated to the next activity.
• Measurement—defines and collects process, project, and product measures that assist the team in delivering
software that meets stakeholders needs; can be used in conjunction with all other framework and umbrella activities.

• Software configuration management—manages the effects of change throughout the software process.

• Reusability management—defines criteria for work product reuse and establishes mechanisms to
achieve reusable components.
• Work product preparation and production—encompasses the activities required to create work products
such as models, documents, logs, forms, and lists.

Attributes for Comparing Process Models

• Overall flow and level of interdependencies among tasks
• Degree to which work tasks are defined within each framework activity
• Degree to which work products are identified and required
• Manner in which quality assurance activities are applied
• Manner in which project tracking and control activities are applied
• Overall degree of detail and rigor of process description
• Degree to which stakeholders are involved in the project
• Level of autonomy given to project team
• Degree to which team organization and roles are prescribed

1.9 Software Engineering Practice:

A generic software process model composed of a set of activities that establish a framework for software
engineering practice. Generic framework activities—communication, planning, modeling, construction, and
deployment—and umbrella activities establish a skeleton architecture for software engineering work.

The Essence of Practice:

The essence of software engineering practice:

1. Understand the problem (communication and analysis).

2. Plan a solution (modeling and software design).
3. Carry out the plan (code generation).
4. Examine the result for accuracy (testing and quality assurance).

Understand the problem. It’s sometimes difficult to admit, but most of us suffer from hubris when we’re
presented with a problem. We listen for a few seconds and then think, Oh yeah, I understand, let’s get on
with solving this thing. Unfortunately, understanding isn’t always that easy. It’s worth spending a little time
answering a few simple questions:
• Who has a stake in the solution to the problem? That is, who are the stakeholders?
• What are the unknowns? What data, functions, and features are required to properly solve the problem?
• Can the problem be compartmentalized? Is it possible to represent smaller problems that may be easier to
understand?
• Can the problem be represented graphically? Can an analysis model be created?

Plan the solution. Now you understand the problem (or so you think) and you can’t wait to begin coding.
Before you do, slow down just a bit and do a little design:
• Have you seen similar problems before? Are there patterns that are recognizable in a potential solution?
Is there existing software that implements the data,
functions, and features that are required?
• Has a similar problem been solved? If so, are elements of the solution reusable?
• Can sub problems be defined? If so, are solutions readily apparent for the sub problems?
• Can you represent a solution in a manner that leads to effective implementation?Can a
design model be created?
 Carry out the plan. The design you’ve created serves as a road map for the system you want to build. There
may be unexpected detours, and it’s possible that you’ll discover an even better route as you go, but the
“plan” will allow you to proceed without getting lost.
• Does the solution conform to the plan? Is source code traceable to the design model?
• Is each component part of the solution provably correct? Have the design and code been reviewed, or better,
have correctness proofs been applied to the algorithm?

Examine the result. You can’t be sure that your solution is perfect, but you can be sure that you’ve designed
a sufficient number of tests to uncover as many errors as possible.
• Is it possible to test each component part of the solution? Has a reasonable testing strategy been
implemented?
• Does the solution produce results that conform to the data, functions, and features that are required?
Has the software been validated against all stakeholder requirements?

1.10 Software General Principles:

The dictionary defines the word principle as “an important underlying law or assumption required in a
system of thought.”
David Hooker has proposed seven principles that focus on software Engineering practice.

The First Principle: The Reason It All Exists

A software system exists for one reason: to provide value to its users.

The Second Principle: KISS (Keep It Simple, Stupid!)

Software design is not a haphazard process. There are many factors to consider in any design effort. All
design should be as simple as possible, but no simpler.

The Third Principle: Maintain the Vision

A clear vision is essential to the success of a software project. Without one, a project almost unfailinglyends
up being “of two [or more] minds” about itself.

The Fourth Principle: What You Produce, Others Will Consume

Always specify, design, and implement knowing someone else will have to understand what you are
doing.

The Fifth Principle: Be Open to the Future

A system with a long lifetime has more value. Never design yourself into a corner. Before beginning a
software project, be sure the software has a business purpose and that users perceive value in it.

The Sixth Principle: Plan Ahead for Reuse

Reuse saves time and effort. Planning ahead for reuse reduces the cost and increases the value of both the
reusable components and the systems into which they are incorporated.

The Seventh principle: Think!

Placing clear, complete thought before action almost always produces better results. When you thinkabout
something, you are more likely to do it right.
 1.11 SOFTWARE MYTHS:
Software Myths- beliefs about software and the process used to build it - can be traced to the earliest days of
computing. Myths have a number of attributes that have made them insidious. For instance, myths appear to
be reasonable statements of fact, they have an intuitive feel, and they are often promulgated by experienced
practitioners who “know the score”

Management Myths:
Managers with software responsibility, like managers in most disciplines, are often under pressure to
maintain budgets, keep schedules from slipping, and improve quality. Like a drowning person who grasps at a
straw, a software manager often grasps at belief in a software myth.
Myth1: We already have a book that’s full of standards and procedures for building software. Won’t that
provide my people with everything they need to know?
Reality:
• The book of standards may very well exist, but is it used?
• Are software practitioners aware of its existence?
• Does it reflect modern software engineering practice?
• Is it complete?
• Is it adaptable?
• Is it streamlined to improve time to delivery while still maintaining a focus on Quality?

In many cases, the answer to these entire question is NO.

Myth2: If we get behind schedule, we can add more programmers and catch up
Reality: Software development is not a mechanistic process like manufacturing. “Adding people to a late
software project makes it later.” At first, this statement may seem counterintuitive. However, as new people
are added, people who were working must spend time educating the newcomers, thereby reducing the amount
of time spent on productive development effort

Myth3: If we decide to outsource the software project to a third party, I can just relax and let that firm build it.
Reality: If an organization does not understand how to manage and control software project internally, it will
invariably struggle when it out sources software project.

Customer Myths:
A customer who requests computer software may be a person at the next desk, a technical group down the
hall, the marketing /sales department, or an outside company that has requested software under contract. In
many cases, the customer believes myths about software because software managers and practitioners do
little to correct misinformation. Myths led to false expectations and ultimately, dissatisfaction with the
developers.
Myth1: A general statement of objectives is sufficient to begin writing programs - we can fill in details later.
Reality: Although a comprehensive and stable statement of requirements is not always possible, an
ambiguous statement of objectives is a recipe for disaster. Unambiguous requirements are developed only
through effective and continuous communication between customer and developer.
Myth2: Project requirements continually change, but change can be easily accommodated because software
is flexible.
Reality: It’s true that software requirement change, but the impact of change varies with the time at which it
is introduced. When requirement changes are requested early, cost impact is relatively small. However, as
time passes, cost impact grows rapidly – resources have been committed, a design framework has been
established, and change can cause upheaval that requires additional resources and major design modification.
Practitioner's Myths:

Myths that are still believed by software practitioners have been fostered by 50 years of programming
culture. During the early days of software, programming was viewed as an art form. Old ways and attitudes
die hard.

Myth1: Once we write the program and get it to work, our job is done.
Reality: Someone once said that "the sooner you begin 'writing code', the longer it'll take you to get done.”
Industry data indicate that between 60 and 80 percent of all effort expended on software will be expended
after it is delivered to the customer for the first time.

Myth2: Until I get the program "running" I have no way of assessing its quality.
Reality: One of the most effective software quality assurance mechanisms can be applied from the inception
of a project—the formal technical review. Software reviews are a "quality filter" that have been found to be
more effective than testing for finding certain classes of software defects.

Myth3: The only deliverable work product for a successful project is the working program.
Reality: A working program is only one part of a software configuration that includes many elements.
Documentation provides a foundation for successful engineering and, more important, guidance for software
support.

Myth4: Software engineering will make us create voluminous and unnecessary documentation and will
invariably slow us down.
Reality: Software engineering is not about creating documents. It is about creating quality. Better quality
leads to reduced rework. And reduced rework results in faster delivery times. Many software professionals
recognize the fallacy of the myths just described. Regrettably, habitual attitudes and methods foster poor
management and technical practices, even when reality dictates a better approach. Recognition of software
realities is the first step toward formulation of practical solutions for software engineering.
1.12 PROCESS MODELS
A GENERIC PROCESS MODEL:
The software process is represented schematically in following figure. Each framework activity is populated
by a set of software engineering actions. Each software engineering action is defined by a task set that
identifies the work tasks that are to be completed, the work products that will be produced, the quality
assurance points that will be required, and the milestones that will be used to indicate progress.

A generic process framework defines five framework activities—communication, planning, modeling,

construction, and deployment.
In addition, a set of umbrella activities project tracking and control, risk management, quality assurance,
configuration management, technical reviews, and others are applied throughout the process.

This aspect is called process flow. It describes how the framework activities and the actions and tasks that
occur within each framework activity are organized with respect to sequence and time.

A linear process flow executes each of the five framework activities in sequence, beginning with
communication and culminating with deployment.
An iterative process flow repeats one or more of the activities before proceeding to the next.
 An evolutionary process flow executes the activities in a “circular” manner. Each circuit through the five
activities leads to a more complete version of the software.
A parallel process flow executes one or more activities in parallel with other activities (e.g., modeling
for one aspect of the software might be executed in parallel with construction of another aspect of the
software).
 1.12.1 Process Patterns:
A process pattern describes a process-related problem that is encountered during software engineering work,
identifies the environment in which the problem has been encountered, and suggests one or more proven
solutions to the problem. Stated in more general terms, a process pattern provides you with a template —a
consistent method for describing problem solutions within the context of the software process.
Patterns can be defined at any level of abstraction. a pattern might be used to describe a problem (and
solution) associated with a complete process model (e.g., prototyping). In other situations, patterns can be
used to describe a problem (and solution) associated with a framework activity (e.g., planning) or an action
within a framework activity (e.g., project estimating).
Ambler has proposed a template for describing a process pattern:
(a) Pattern Name. The pattern is given a meaningful name describing it within the context of the software
process
(b) Forces. The environment in which the pattern is encountered and the issues that make the problem
visible and may affect its solution.
(c) Type. The pattern type is specified. Ambler suggests three types:
1. Stage pattern—defines a problem associated with a framework activity for the process. Since a
framework activity encompasses multiple actions and work tasks, a stage pattern incorporates multiple
task patterns (see the following) that are relevant to the stage (framework activity). An example of a
stage pattern might be Establishing Communication. This pattern would incorporate the task pattern
Requirements Gathering and others.
2. Task pattern—defines a problem associated with a software engineering action or work task and
relevant to successful software engineering practice (e.g., Requirements Gathering is a task pattern).
3. Phase pattern—define the sequence of framework activities that occurs within the process, even when
the overall flow of activities is iterative in nature. An example of a phase pattern might be Spiral Model
or Prototyping.
(d) Initial context. Describes the conditions under which the pattern applies. Prior to the initiation of the
pattern:
i. What organizational or team-related activities have already occurred?
ii. What is the entry state for the process?
iii. What software engineering information or project information already exists?
(e) Problem. The specific problem to be solved by the pattern.
(f) Solution. Describes how to implement the pattern successfully. It also describes how software engineering
information or project information that is available before the initiation of the pattern is transformed as a
consequence of the successful execution of the pattern.
(g) Resulting Context. Describes the conditions that will result once the pattern has been successfully
implemented. Upon completion of the pattern:
i. What organizational or team-related activities must have occurred?
ii. What is the exit state for the process?
iii. What software engineering information or project information has been developed?
(h) Related Patterns. Provide a list of all process patterns that are directly related to this one. This may be
represented as a hierarchy or in some other diagrammatic form.
(i) Known Uses and Examples. Indicate the specific instances in which the pattern is applicable.
Process patterns provide an effective mechanism for addressing problems associated with any software
process. The patterns enable you to develop a hierarchical process description that begins at a high level of
abstraction (a phase pattern).
1.13 PROCESS ASSESSMENT AND IMPROVEMENT:
Assessment attempts to understand the current state of the software process with the intent of improving it.
A number of different approaches to software process assessment and improvement have been proposed
over the past few decades.
Standard CMMI Assessment Method for Process Improvement (SCAMPI)—provides a five step process
assessment model that incorporates five phases: initiating, diagnosing, establishing, acting, and learning.
The SCAMPI method uses the SEI CMMI as the basis for assessment.
CMM-Based Appraisal for Internal Process Improvement (CBA IPI)— provides a diagnostic technique for
assessing the relative maturity of a software organization; uses the SEI CMM as the basis for the assessment.
SPICE (ISO/IEC15504)—a standard that defines a set of requirements for software process assessment. The
intent of the standard is to assist organizations in developing an objective evaluation of the efficacy of any
defined software process.
ISO 9001:2000 for Software—a generic standard that applies to any organization that wants to improve the
overall quality of the products, systems, or services that it provides. Therefore, the standard is directly
applicable to software organizations and companies.

1.14 PRESCRIPTIVE PROCESS MODELS:

Prescriptive process models were originally proposed to bring order to the chaos of software development.
Prescriptive process models define a prescribed set of process elements and a predictable process work flow.
“prescriptive” because they prescribe a set of process elements—framework activities, software engineering
actions, tasks, work products, quality assurance, and change control mechanisms for each project.

1.14.1 The Waterfall Model:

The waterfall model, sometimes called the classic life cycle, suggests a systematic, sequential approach to
software development that begins with customer specification of requirements and progresses through
planning, modeling, construction and deployment .

A variation in the representation of the waterfall model is called the V-model. Represented in following figure.
The V-model depicts the relationship of quality assurance actions to the actions associated with
communication, modeling, and early construction activities.
As a software team moves down the left side of the V, basic problem requirements are refined into
progressively more detailed and technical representations of the problem and its solution. Once code has been
generated, the team moves up the right side of the V, essentially performing a series of tests that validate each
of the models created as the team moved down the left side. The V-model provides a way of visualizing how
verification and validation actions are applied to earlier engineering work.
The waterfall model is the oldest paradigm for software engineering. The problems that are sometimes
encountered when the waterfall model is applied are:
V Model:

1. Real projects rarely follow the sequential flow that the model proposes. Although the
linear model can accommodate iteration, it does so indirectly. As a result, changes can cause confusion as the
project team proceeds.
2. It is often difficult for the customer to state all requirements explicitly. The waterfall model requires
this and has difficulty accommodating the natural uncertainty that exists at the beginning ofmany projects.

3. The customer must have patience. A working version of the program(s) will not be available until late in
the project time span.
This model is suitable when ever limited number of new development efforts and when requirements are well
defined and reasonably stable.

1.14.2 Incremental Process Models:

The incremental model delivers a series of releases, called increments, that provide progressively more
functionality for the customer as each increment is delivered.
The incremental model combines elements of linear and parallel process flows discussed in Section 1.7. The
incremental model applies linear sequences in a staggered fashion as calendar time progresses. Each linear
sequence produces deliverable “increments” of the software in a manner that is similar to the increments
produced by an evolutionary process flow.

For example, word-processing software developed using the incremental paradigm might deliver basic file
management, editing, and document production functions in the first increment; more sophisticated editing
and document production capabilities in the second increment; spelling and grammar checking in the third
increment; and advanced page layout capability in the fourth increment.
When an incremental model is used, the first increment is often a core product. That is, basic requirements
are addressed but many supplementary features remain undelivered. The core product is used by the
customer. As a result of use and/or evaluation, a plan is developed for the next increment. The plan addresses
the modification of the core product to better meet the needs of the customer and the delivery of additional
features and functionality. This process is repeated following the delivery of each increment, until the
complete product is produced.
Incremental development is particularly useful when staffing is unavailable for a complete implementation
by the business deadline that has been established for the project. Early increments can be implemented with
fewer people. If the core product is well received, then additional staff (if required) can be added to
implement the next increment. In addition, increments can be planned to manage technical risks.
1.14.3 Evolutionary Process Models:
Evolutionary models are iterative. They are characterized in a manner that enables you to develop
increasingly more complete versions of the software with each iteration. There are two common evolutionary
process models.

Prototyping Model:
Often, a customer defines a set of general objectives for software, but does not identify detailed requirements
for functions and features. In other cases, the developer may be unsure of the efficiency of an algorithm, the
adaptability of an operating system, or the form that human-machine interaction should take. In these, and
many other situations, a prototyping paradigm may offer the best approach.
Although prototyping can be used as a stand-alone process model, it is more commonly used as a technique
that can be implemented within the context of any one of the process models.
The prototyping paradigm begins with communication. You meet with other stakeholders to define the
overall objectives for the software, identify whatever requirements are known, and outline areas where
further definition is mandatory. A prototyping iteration is planned quickly, and modeling (in the form of a
“quick design”) occurs. A quick design focuses on a representation of those aspects of the software that will
be visible to end users.

Fig : prototyping paradigm

The quick design leads to the construction of a prototype. The prototype is deployed and evaluated by
stakeholders, who provide feedback that is used to further refine requirements. Iteration occurs as the
prototype is tuned to satisfy the needs of various stakeholders, while at the same time enabling you to better
understand what needs to be done.
The prototype serves as a mechanism for identifying software requirements. If a working prototype is to be
built, you can make use of existing program fragments or apply tools that enable working programs to be
generated quickly. The prototype can serve as “the first system.”
Prototyping can be problematic for the following reasons:

1. Stakeholders see what appears to be a working version of the software, unaware that the prototype is held
together haphazardly, unaware that in the rush to get it working you haven’t considered overall software
quality or long-term maintainability.
2. As a software engineer, you often make implementation compromises in order to get a prototype working
quickly. An inappropriate operating system or programming language may be used simply because it is
available and known; an inefficient algorithm may be implemented simply to demonstrate capability.
Although problems can occur, prototyping can be an effective paradigm for software engineering.

The Spiral Model:

Originally proposed by Barry Boehm, the spiral model is an evolutionary software process model that
couples the iterative nature of prototyping with the controlled and systematic aspects of the waterfall model.
It provides the potential for rapid development of increasingly more complete versions of the software.
Boehm describes the model in the following manner.
The spiral development model is a risk-driven process model generator that is used to guide multi-
stakeholder concurrent engineering of software intensive systems. It has two main distinguishing
features. One is a cyclic approach for incrementally growing a system’s degree of definition and
implementation while decreasing its degree of risk. The other is a set of anchor point milestones for ensuring
stakeholder commitment to feasible and mutually satisfactory system solutions. Using the spiral model,
software is developed in a series of evolutionary releases. During early iterations, the release might be a
model or prototype. During later iterations, increasingly more complete versions of the engineered system are
produced.

A spiral model is divided into a set of framework activities defined by the software engineering team. As this
evolutionary process begins, the software team performs activities that are implied by a circuit around the spiral
in a clockwise direction, beginning at the center. Risk is considered as each revolution is made. Anchor point
milestones are a combination of work products and conditions that are attained along the path of the spiral are
noted for each evolutionary pass.
The first circuit around the spiral might result in the development of a product specification; subsequent
passes around the spiral might be used to develop a prototype and then progressively more sophisticated
versions of the software. Each pass through the planning region results in adjustments to the project plan. The
spiral model can be adapted to apply throughout the life of the computer software. Therefore, the first circuit
around the spiral might represent a “concept development project” that starts at the core of the spiral and
continues for multiple iterations until concept development is complete. The new product will evolve through
a number of iterations around the spiral. Later, a circuit around the spiral might be used to represent a
“product enhancement project.”. The spiral model is a realistic approach to the development of large-
scale systems and software. Because software evolves as the process progresses, the developer and customer
better understand and react to risks at each evolutionary level. It maintains the systematic stepwise approach
suggested by the classic life cycle but incorporates it into an iterative framework that more realistically
reflects the real world.

1.14.4 Concurrent Models:

The concurrent development model, sometimes called concurrent engineering, allows a software team to
represent iterative and concurrent elements of any of the process models. The concurrent model is often more
appropriate for product engineering projects where different engineering teams are involved.
These models provide a schematic representation of one software engineering activity within the
modeling activity using a concurrent modeling approach. The activity modeling may be in any one of the states
noted at any given time. Similarly, other activities, actions, or tasks (e.g., communication
orconstruction) can be represented in an analogous manner.

All software engineering activities exist concurrently but reside in different states. Concurrent modeling
defines a series of events that will trigger transitions from state to state for each of the software engineering
activities, actions, or tasks. This generates the event analysis model correction, which will trigger the
requirements analysis action from the done state into the awaiting changes state.
Concurrent modeling is applicable to all types of software development and provides an accurate picture of the
current state of a project. Each activity, action, or task on the network exists simultaneously with other
activities, actions, or tasks. Events generated at one point in the process network trigger transitions among the
states.
1.14.5 SPECIALIZED PROCESS MODELS:
Specialized process models take on many of the characteristics of one or more of the traditional models
presented in the preceding sections. However, these models tend to be applied when a specialized or narrowly
defined software engineering approach is chosen.

1. Component-Based Development:
The component-based development model incorporates many of the characteristics of the spiral model. It is
evolutionary in nature, demanding an iterative approach to the creation of software. However, the component-
based development model constructs applications from prepackaged software components.
Modeling and construction activities begin with the identification of candidate components. These
components can be designed as either conventional software modules or object-oriented classes or packages of
classes. Regardless of the technology that is used to create the components, the component- based
development model incorporates the following steps
a. Available component-based products are researched and evaluated for the application domain inquestion.
b. Component integration issues are considered.
c. A software architecture is designed to accommodate the components.
d. Components are integrated into the architecture.
e. Comprehensive testing is conducted to ensure proper functionality.
The component-based development model leads to software reuse, and reusability provides software
engineers with a number of measurable benefits.

2. The Formal Methods Model:

The formal methods model encompasses a set of activities that leads to formal mathematical specification of
computer software. Formal methods enable you to specify, develop, and verify a computer-based system by
applying a rigorous, mathematical notation. A variation on this approach, called clean room software
engineering.
When formal methods are used during development, they provide a mechanism for eliminating many of the
problems that are difficult to overcome using other software engineering paradigms. Ambiguity,
incompleteness, and inconsistency can be discovered and corrected more easily, but through the application
of mathematical analysis.
When formal methods are used during design, they serve as a basis for program verification and therefore
enable you to discover and correct errors that might otherwise go undetected. Although not a mainstream
approach, the formal methods model offers the promise of defect-free software.

Draw Backs:
• The development of formal models is currently quite time consuming and expensive.
• Because few software developers have the necessary background to apply formal methods, extensive
training is required.
• It is difficult to use the models as a communication mechanism for Technically unsophisticated customers.

3. Aspect-Oriented Software Development:

A OSD defines “aspects” that express customer concerns that cut across multiple system functions, features,
and information. When concerns cut across multiple system functions, features, and information, they are
often referred to as crosscutting concerns. Aspectual requirements define those crosscutting concerns that
have an impact across the software architecture.
Aspect-oriented software development (AOSD), often referred to as aspect-oriented programming (AOP), is a
relatively new software engineering paradigm that provides a process and methodological approach for
defining, specifying, designing, and constructing aspects.”
Grundy provides further discussion of aspects in the context of what he calls aspect-oriented component
engineering (AOCE):
AOCE uses a concept of horizontal slices through vertically-decomposed software components, called
“aspects,” to characterize cross-cutting functional and non-functional properties of components.
1.14.6 UNIFIED PROCESS:

In some way the Unified Process is an attempt to draw on the best feature and characteristics of traditional
software process models.
The Unified Process recognizes the importance of customer communication and streamlined methods for
describing the customer’s view of a system.
It emphasizes the important role of software architecture and “helps the architect focus on the right goals, such
as understandability, reliance to future changes, and reuse”.
It suggests a process flow that is iterative and incremental, providing the evolutionary feel that is essential in
modern software development.
The above figure shows the Unified Process Model.
The Inception Phase of the UP is where customer communication and planning takes place. Planning identifies
resources, assesses major risk, and defines a preliminary schedule for the software increments.
The Elaboration Phase contains the planning and modeling activities of the generic process model. Elaboration
refines and expands the preliminary use case and creates an architectural baseline includes five different view
of software—the use case model, the analysis model, the design model, the implementation model and
deployment model.
The Construction Phase of the UP is identical to construction activity defined for the generic software process.
All necessary and required feature and functions for the software are implemented in source code. And unit test
are designed and executed for each. In addition integration test and acceptance test are conducted.
The Transition Phase of the UP contains the latter stage of generic construction activity and the first part of the
generic deployment activity. Software and supporting documentation is given to end users for beta testing and
user feedback reports both defects and necessary changes.
The Production Phase of the UP is with the deployment activity of the generic process. During this phase, the
ongoing use of the software is monitored, support for the operating environment is provided, and defect reports
and request for changes.