The Concept of Research

Key Concepts
 Common sense vs. Science as systematic way of knowing
 Inquiry and Reasoning-
 Epistemology- ways of knowing
 Empirical vs casual
 Every day encounter vs. planned observation (e.g. Newton and Aklilu)

Science and common sense differ

 use of concepts and theories
 control
 phenomenon explanation
Science is systematic and controlled. So is research.

Scientific research
 scientific method of knowing.
 discovery of regularities of nature & representation in theories from
which predictions can be made.
 finding general rules,
 collecting objective evidences,
 making testable statements,
 adopting a skeptical attitude about all claims,

Scientific research steps:

 defining the problem
 making tentative explanations/hypothesis
 gathering information
 testing the validity of the hypothesis
 making conclusions

Limitations of scientific method of knowing

 No answer for all questions
 Application can never capture all
 Measurement not error free

Scientific Research Defined

 systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase
our understanding of the phenomenon under study.

Scientific Research
 Systematic - ordered, planned and disciplined;
 Controlled - researcher can have confidence in his/her research
outcomes;
 Empirical - testable beliefs, ideas or assumptions, and
 Critical - many truths are tentative and are subject to change
Goals and Characteristics of Scientific Research
e.g. What do you think is the goal of Irrigation Engineering as a science
discipline?
Scientific Standard 1: Explanation of the data

 explains an event or behavior

 explains why.

Scientific Standard 2: Prediction of future events

 predicts what would happen.

 explains past events with due to future predictions and likely
consequences.

Scientific Standard 3: Hypothesis that can be tested.

 is testable or falsifiable

Scientific Standard 4: Relative simplicity – parsimony.

 A good scientific theory is as simple as possible.

Scientific Standard 5: Practical utility

 useful.
 offer practical help of our lives
 provides helpful advice to us to act on it.

Research Methodology factors

 Ways of Knowing: discovering the truth out there vs. creating multiple
reality
 How do we know what we know if we know it at all? - epistemology.
 Human Nature: determinism vs. free will
 The purpose of theory: universal laws vs. rules for interpretation
 Research Methods: experiments, surveys, textual analysis,
ethnography

Therefore Research Methodology

 approach of how we know about the world around us.
 major philosophical schools of thought.
 theory of how inquiry should proceed
 researchers’ assumptions about the nature of reality and the nature of
knowing and knowledge.

Epistemological issues in research

  Are the objects that the researchers study real?
 How is research knowledge different from other forms of knowledge?
 What is theory, and how can it be validated?
 What does it mean to find “laws” that enable us to predict individual
and group behavior?
 Is inquiry in the social sciences fundamentally different from inquiry in
the natural sciences?
Types of research
factors
 goal of the research
 specific objectives
 approaches of research,
 designs,
 the type of data used and
 fields of study.
Based on general goal of research
 Basic
 Applied

Specific objectives of research,

 Descriptive
 Explanatory
 Design
 Experimental
 Non-experimental

Data used and

 Primary (field research) e.g. Environmental Assessment)
 Secondary
 Quantitative
 Qualitative
Approaches
 qualitative research
 quantitative research

Field of Study: four classes of science

 Physical Science- matter- material objects e.g. Quantum Gravity
(Theory of Matter)
 Biological Science- life - Modern Synthesis (Theory of Life)
 Psychological Science- mind - Behavioural Investment Theory (Theory
of Mind)
 Social Science- culture- Justification Hypothesis (Theory of Culture)

Engineering versus Science

 We can understand engineering versus science better if we look at the
relationship between science and technology in general.
Classical view
 The relationship between science and technology is linear: first science
then technology.
 Basic science makes discoveries that are turned into inventions by
applied science and then developed into useful artifacts by
technologists.
 Scientists create knowledge; engineers apply that knowledge.
 Scientists study the world as it is; engineers seek to change the world.
 Scientists are trained in scientific methods; engineers are trained in
engineering design.
 Scientists use explicit (theoretical) knowledge; engineers use tacit
(practical) knowledge.
 Scientists are thinkers; engineers are doers.
Recent view
 History of technology shows, in the 17 th and 18th c, any transfer that
took place was from technology to science, in the form of new
observation instruments.
 At the end of the 19th c, laboratories were founded where science and
technology were in close interaction,
 The relationship between science and technology was more interactive
in which science, technology and society played role.
 Both scientists and engineers
 involve a mix of design and discovery
 create knowledge create knowledge
 are problem-driven are problem-driven
 seek to understand and explain
 design experiments to test theories design devices to test
theories.
 Whilst scientists prefer abstract knowledge, engineers prefer
contingent knowledge, but they both rely on tacit knowledge.

Therefore engineering as science is the

 scientific study of technology when science is the critical pursuit of
knowledge.
 development of cost-effective solutions to practical problems, through
the application of scientific knowledge.
Cost-effective
 Consideration of design trade-offs, especially of resource usage
 Minimization of negative impacts (e.g. environmental and social
costs)
Solutions
 Emphasis on building devices
Practical problems
 solving problems that matter to the society
 improving human life in general through technological advance
Application of scientific knowledge
 Systematic application of analytical techniques

Science and technology

 Are both systems of human activities with norms of professional
behavior.
 Technology contains human knowledge required and produced by the
activities of producing, developing and maintaining useful artifacts.
 Science contains the knowledge required and produced by the activity
of critically pursuing knowledge.
 Technology is the development, production and maintenance of useful
artifacts.

Research in Engineering
Research is an activity to acquire knowledge critically, and this activity can
be performed rationally by structuring it according to the engineering cycle.
 Problem investigation
 Solution design
 Design validation
 Design implementation
 Implementation evaluation
1.Research problem investigation.
 What is it we don’t know, and why do we want to know it?
 Who is interested in knowing this?
 What do we know already?
 What are the research questions?
 What conceptual framework will we use to structure the knowledge?
2.Research design.
 Can the questions be answered non-empirically (e.g. by mathematical
proof or logical argument) or should we investigate phenomena (found
in nature or in technology)?
 If we need to investigate phenomena, what is the population of
interest, how do we collect data about it and how do we analyze it?
3. Research design validation- If we perform the research as
designed,
 would our conclusions be valid?
 Would our claims about it be correct (internal validity)
 Could we generalize the results to the population of interest (external
validity)?
 In which ways could our conclusions possibly be wrong?
4. Do the research.
5. Evaluate the results.
 What are the answers to our research questions?
 Is this a significant addition to our knowledge? Are there further
questions to be answered?
Engineering Research Methods
 Research methods for the engineering sciences are no different than
research methods for any other kind of science.
 Utility is an essential factor in choosing engineering research problems.
 Neutrality- free from bias and neutral.
 Reliability: consistency of the results.
 Validity= results according to the objectives of the research.
 Generalization- applicable to the population with similar accuracy
 Central element here is the importance of conditions of practice in
technology.
 The professional engineer includes both the practicing technologist and
the engineering researcher investigating problems
 Most modern problems in Ethiopia are engineering problems parking
spaces, condominiums, .public areas compare it with Japanese Kizen.
You do have practical engineering problems in sitting arrangement and
class room management. Take the traffic problem in Addis Ababa

Modeling and Simulation

 the process of creating representation of a system to analyze and
predict real-world problems:
 bridges the gap between theoretical concepts and real-world
 The researcher, who usually also is the technologist who designed the
new technology, uses the proposed technology on a real-life example
but in an artificial environment.
 Models can tell us something about their subject because of some
similarity between them and their subject.
 Models could be physical, mathematical or computer (mini-technology)
eg Archimedes’ screw
 Engineers model from nature directly or by what they call reverse
engineering
Laboratory or field experiments
 design to establish causal relationship between independent and
dependent variable.
 creates conditions in a short period of time that may take years to
occur naturally.
 conducted in laboratory, experimental unit or in specialized research
setting.
 The technology can be used by subjects in an experiment.
 The subjects can be students or professionals, and the environment
can be artificial (laboratory experiment) or natural (field experiment).
Action research.
 Purpose is to initiate and promote change. Eg now AMU management
is changed you can propose for some problems to be solved as for
example the pool to be used to teach Archimedes Principle
 can be used to improve the connection between research and
practice.
  cyclical process that involves planning, acting, observing, and
reflecting, with each cycle informing the next
 good approach for solving ill-defined problems, or "wicked problems",
which are challenging because they lack clear information
 The researcher enters a project as a consultant and uses his or her
techniques to perform tasks in the project.
 Here, most of the conditions of practice will be present
 The researcher is also the designer of the technology.
 After the project has finished, the researcher technologist evaluates
the performance of the techniques, draws lessons learned, and
possibly improves the design of the techniques.
Pilot projects.
 carried out before a research design is finalised to assist in defining the
research question or to test the feasibility, reliability and validity of the
proposed study design
 small scale study conducted to test the plan and method of a research
study
 small study carried out before a large-scale study to try out a
procedure or to test a principle
 Provide examples
 The techniques are used by others in a real-world project.
 Certain variables are measured by the researcher (who is not
participating in the project) and after finishing the project, this is used
to decide by a manager whether or not to use the technology in future
projects.
 Depending on the set-up of the pilot, all relevant conditions of practice
will be present.
Case studies.
 real-world account of project or situation that helps people understand
problems and solutions.
 Case studies are often used in engineering education to help students
learn how professionals solve problems in the field.
 They can also be found in scholarly articles, books, and on the
websites of professional organizations
 The techniques are used by others in a real-life project, just as in a
pilot study,
 There usually not the intention to decide about using the technology in
other projects, as there is for pilot projects.

Fundamentals of technical writing

Introduction
Research and report writing are activities common in academic writing. It
can be used to develop procedures, to test products, to explore markets, to
gather opinion, to find scientific truth, and for numerous other purposes. The
result of research may be reported in writing, informally or formally. Reports
are based on thorough, accurate research.
The five steps in conducting research are;
 Planning the research
 Gathering information
 Analyzing the information
 Determining solutions
 Writing the report.
Thus the final step in a research project is to write the report. We have to
draft, revise and edit and present the results effectively. Reports must be
written to be readable and understandable.

A report is a form of professional documentation designed for the readers to

gather information.

Report and essay are used interchangeably, but they have differences.
 A report is a form of professional documentation, whereas an essay is
not designed as a working document.
 A report is formatted with sections and subsections that aim to
maximise the ease of extraction of information. There is no visual
formatting in an essay.
 An essay is more of a literary form of writing than a report.

Structure of technical report

The following is the basic structure of a technical report;
1. Title page
2. Acknowledgements
3. Summary or Abstract
4. Contents
5. Glossary
6. Introduction or Background
7. Theory (if needed)
8. Middle sections (the headings depend on what type of report we are
writing)
9. Conclusions
10. Recommendations (if needed)
11. References or Bibliography
12. Appendices
Types of reports
 General report
 Lab report (report on a piece of experimental work)
 A final year research project
 Practical work reports (reports on work for an outside organization)
 Environmental assessments and impacts reports
 Field trip reports
 Engineering design reports/Software engineering reports

1. General report
This report is on a specific area around by using the library and contacting
outside organizations for information. The purpose of this report is to give a
balanced, illustrated account of a particular area of knowledge. Examples:
solar power, the potential for wave power, electric and hybrid vehicles,
contaminated sites in an area, waste-water treatment systems. These
reports need to be structured like the example shown above.

2. Laboratory report
The experimental work is an original work carried out in a group or as a
laboratory exercise. The aim of a laboratory report is to document your
findings and to share with readers
 why the test was performed.
 how the test was performed.
 what were the results.
 what follow up action is required.
 Others
Thus the purpose of a lab report is to
 describe experimental work in sufficient detail for it to be repeated and
verified by others.
 draw conclusions from data and findings
 place those conclusions in the context of related work in the area.
The components of a lab report are:
Introduction (overview, background, purpose)
 The rationale (What problem motivated this report?)
 The objectives (What does the report hope to prove?)
 Authorization (Under whose authority is the report being written?)
Discussion: (body, methodology)
How the test was performed? (Apparatus used, procedures followed,
results obtained)
Conclusions and/or recommendations
The conclusion of a lab report presents the findings.
 What have you learned or discovered or uncovered?
 How do you interpret your findings?
 What are the implications?
Recommendations present the likely solutions as per the findings and
conclusions
 What following action should be taken?
The sequence of sections in these types of reports is as follows;
 Summary
 Introduction
 Theory (if needed)
 Experimental procedure
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusions
 References
 Appendices
3. A final-year research report/project
The report should be within the frame work describing the procedures and
presenting the results. If the experimental work has a number of quite
separate parts, group the Experimental Procedure and the Results sections
for each experiment together. If appropriate, include a short Discussion for
each separate part and follow up with an overall main Discussion. A more
logical structure is achieved by writing a section called Results and
Discussion.

4. Practical work report (reports on work for an outside

organization)
This is a report on work for an outside organization. The aim of this type of
report is to describe the activities of the company and work within it. The
sequence of sections could be;
Summary
Description of organization worked
a) the type of enterprise and what it produces or does
b) a brief description of the layout of the works and plant
c) the staff organization structure
d) number of employees in various jobs
A full description of the work did
A full description of the other work observed
General comments on;
a) buildings
b) layout of the plant
c) technical facilities
d) amenities for staff
e) industrial relations in the organization
Conclusions
Appendices
5. Environmental reports
The purpose of this report is to report on the conditions, uses and
significances of a site or ecosystem. There are two different forms of an
environmental report.
1. An environmental impact report: The purpose of this report is to assess
the impact of a proposed development or change in use
2. An environmental assessment report: The purpose of this report is;
 To provide basic information on a natural environment for the planning
department of the local authority. No development is planned for the
area at present. It is simply seen to be undervalued in terms of
conservation or public interest. The site may be in private or public
ownership.
 To give an objective and subjective assessment of the value of
the site or ecosystem.
 To encourage protection of the area.
Suggested structure for these reports would be;
 Summary
 Introduction
 Description of the area- its locality, geography and present condition.
 Assessment of value – as an amenity, natural system, aesthetic feature
etc. requiring comparison with others nearby.
 Analysis of its uniqueness- providing some scale of its importance
 Analysis of its significance, urgency of action, irreversibility of action
and extent of loss to society or community if not protected.
 For an Impact Report: An account of the impact of the development,
and the environmental safeguards to be adopted.
 Recommendations
 Conclusions
 References
 Appendices
6. A field trip report
The purpose of this report is to report on a field investigation. In the
biological sciences, they generally deal with and in the earth sciences, with
aspects of geological formations and fossil life. It is essential that these
reports should not be a duplication of general material, but should present
own observations.
In Biological sciences, reports are usually required in the standard format as
follows;
 Summary
 Introduction
 Theory (if needed)
 Experimental procedure
 Results
 Discussion
 Conclusions
 References
 Appendices
In Earth sciences, the suggested headings would be: Summary, Introduction,
Land Forms, Lithology and Faunas, Structure, Discussion, References,
Appendices.

7. Design Reports: Engineering/software development

The purpose of the report is to give the specifications for an engineering
design, or for software development. To design is to create the description of
something that does not yet exist. Therefore, these reports are quite
different from other types. They are;
 Open-ended
 Require creativity and individual judgment
 Must satisfy a set of rules
It is essential to deliver the ideas clearly. There is no general format for
engineering design reports, since it will depend on the individual
departments and lectures. Some departments regard the workbook as the
design report; others require an assembling of the material into something
that closely resembles other types of report. It is essential to conform to the
requirements of the department. The following general points are to be
noted for clear presentation of report.
 The calculations or coding must be presented in such a way that some
one can follow them. Anticipate the way in which marker is most
 clearly going to understand the reasoning, and then present the
sequence of design.
 Drawings must be self-explanatory
 There is a need to quote and fully reference formulae, standards or
codes, and any assumptions made.