CHAPTER 1

BASIC CONCEPTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.2 SYSTEMS OF UNITS
1.2 CHARGE AND CURRENT
1.3 VOLTAGE
1.4 POWER AND ENERGY
1.5 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In electrical engineering, we are often interested in
communicating or transferring energy from one point to another.
To do this requires an interconnection of electrical devices.
Such interconnection is referred to as an electric circuit, and each
component of the circuit is known as an element.
➢ An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical
elements.
A simple electric circuit is shown in below.
It consists of three basic
elements: a battery, a lamp,
and connecting wires. Such a
simple circuit can exist by
itself; it has several
applications, such as a
flashlight, a search light, and
so forth. 2
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A complicated real circuit is displayed in Fig. 1.2, representing
the schematic diagram for a radio receiver.

Fig. 1.2 Electric circuit of a radio transmitter

Electric circuits are used in numerous electrical systems to
accomplish different tasks. 3
1.2 SYSTEMS OF UNITS
As electrical engineers, we deal with measurable quantities. Our
measurement, however, must be communicated in a standard
language that virtually all professionals can understand,
irrespective of the country where the measurement is conducted.
The SI units are used throughout this subject.

4
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT
The concept of electric charge is the underlying principle for
explaining all electrical phenomena. Also, the most basic quantity
in an electric circuit is the electric charge. We all experience the
effect of electric charge when we try to remove our wool sweater
and have it stick to our body or walk across a carpet and receive a
shock.
Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of which
matter consists, measured in coulombs (C).

We know from elementary physics that all matter is made of

fundamental building blocks known as atoms and that each atom
consists of electrons, protons, and neutrons. The presence of
equal numbers of protons and electrons leaves an atom neutrally
charged.

5
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

The following points should be noted about electric charge:

1. The coulomb is a large unit for charges. In 1𝐶 of charge, there

are 1/1,6.10−19 = 6,24.1018 electrons. Thus realistic or laboratory
values of charges are on the order of 𝑝𝐶, 𝑛𝐶, or 𝜇𝐶.
2. According to experimental observations, the only charges that
occur in nature are integral multiples of the electronic charge e =
− 1,6.10−19 𝐶
3. The law of conservation of charge states that charge can
neither be created nor destroyed, only transferred. Thus the
algebraic sum of the electric charges in a system does not
change.

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1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT
We now consider the flow of electric charges. A unique feature
of electric charge or electricity is the fact that it is mobile; that is, it
can be transferred from one place to another, where it can be
converted to another form of energy.
When a conducting wire (consisting of several atoms) is
connected to a battery (a source of electromotive force), the
charges are compelled to move; positive charges move in one
direction while negative charges move in the opposite direction.
This motion of charges creates electric current. It is conventional
to take the current flow as the movement of positive charges.

7
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT
Electric current is the time rate of change of charge, measured
in amperes (A).
Mathematically, the relationship between current i, charge q, and
time t is
𝑑𝑞
𝑖=
𝑑𝑡
where current is measured in amperes (A), and:
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
1 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 1
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑

The charge transferred between time 𝑡0 and 𝑡 is obtained by

integrating above equation:
𝑡
𝑄 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝑡0

8
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT
If the current does not change with time, but remains constant,
we call it a direct current (dc). A direct current (dc) is a current
that remains constant with time.
By convention the symbol I is used to represent such a constant
current.
A time-varying current is represented by the symbol i. A common
form of time-varying current is the sinusoidal current or alternating
current (ac). An alternating current (ac) is a current that varies
sinusoidally with time.
Direct Alternating
current current

9
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT
Once we define current as the movement of charge, we expect
current to have an associated direction of flow. As mentioned
earlier, the direction of current flow is conventionally taken as the
direction of positive charge movement.
Based on this convention, a current of 5𝐴 may be represented
positively or negatively.
In other words, a negative current of −5𝐴 flowing in one
direction as shown in below Fig. b). The same as a current of +5𝐴
flowing in the opposite direction in Fig. a).

10
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

Example 1.1
How much charge is represented by 4600 electrons?
Solution
Each electron has −1,6.10−19 𝐶 . Hence, 4600 electrons will
have:
4600 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠 × −1,6.10−19 𝐶/𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 7360.10−19 𝐶

Problem 1.1
Calculate the amount of charge represented by six million
protons.

11
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

Example 1.2
The total charge entering a terminal is given by 𝑞 = 5𝑡 sin 4𝜋𝑡
𝑚𝐶 . Calculate the current at 𝑡 = 0,5s
Solution
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= = 5𝑡 sin 4𝜋𝑡 = 5 sin 4𝜋𝑡 + 20𝜋𝑡 cos 4𝜋𝑡 (𝑚𝐴)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At 𝑡 = 0,5𝑠,
𝑖 = 5 sin 2𝜋 + 10𝜋 cos 2𝜋 = 10𝜋 ≈ 31,42 𝑚𝐴

Problem 1.2
If 𝑞 = 10 − 10𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑚𝐶 , find the current at 𝑡 = 1𝑠

12
1.3 CHARGE AND CURRENT

Example 1.3
Determine the total charge entering a terminal between 𝑡 = 1𝑠
and 𝑡 = 2𝑠 if the current passing the terminal is 𝑖 = 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 (𝐴).
Solution
2
2 1
𝑡2
𝑄 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = න 3𝑡 2 − 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡 3 − อ = 5,5 𝐶
𝑡=1 1 2
1

Problem 1.3
The current flowing through an element is
4 𝐴 ,0 < 𝑡 ≤ 1
𝑖=ቊ 2
4𝑡 𝐴 , 𝑡 > 1
Calculate the charge entering the element from 𝑡 = 0𝑠 to 𝑡 = 2𝑠.

13
1.4 VOLTAGE
As explained briefly in the previous section, to move the electron
in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or
energy transfer. This work is performed by an external
electromotive force (𝑒𝑚𝑓), typically represented by the battery.
This 𝑒𝑚𝑓 is also known as voltage or potential difference.
The voltage between two points 𝑎 and 𝑏 in an electric circuit is
the energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from 𝑎 to 𝑏:
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑎𝑏 =
𝑑𝑞
where 𝜔 is energy in joules 𝐽 and 𝑞 is charge in coulombs (𝐶).
The voltage or simply 𝑣 is measured in volts (𝑉).
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 × 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟
1 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 1 =1
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏

14
1.4 VOLTAGE
Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move a
unit charge through an element, measured in volts (𝑉).
Figure below shows the voltage across an element (represented
by a rectangular block) connected to points a and b. The plus +
and minus − signs are used to define reference direction or
voltage polarity. The 𝑣𝑎𝑏 can be interpreted in two ways: (1) Point
a is at a potential of 𝑣𝑎𝑏 volts higher than point b, or (2) the
potential at point a with respect to point b is 𝑣𝑎𝑏 . It follows logically
that in general
𝑣𝑎𝑏 = −𝑣𝑏𝑎

15
1.4 VOLTAGE
Current and voltage are the two basic variables in electric
circuits. The common term signal is used for an electric quantity
such as a current or a voltage (or even electromagnetic wave)
when it is used for conveying information.
Engineers prefer to call such variables signals rather than
mathematical functions of time because of their importance in
communications and other disciplines.
Like electric current, a constant voltage is called a dc voltage
and is represented by 𝑽, whereas a sinusoidally time-varying
voltage is called an ac voltage and is represented by 𝒗.
A dc voltage is commonly produced by a battery; ac voltage is
produced by an electric generator.

16
1.5 POWER AND ENERGY
Although current and voltage are the two basic variables in an
electric circuit, they are not sufficient by themselves. For practical
purposes, we need to know how much power an electric device
can handle.
We all know from experience that a 100-watt bulb gives more
light than a 60-watt bulb. We also know that when we pay our bills
to the electric utility companies, we are paying for the electric
energy consumed over a certain period of time. Thus, power and
energy calculations are important in circuit analysis.

17
1.5 POWER AND ENERGY
To relate power and energy to voltage and current, we recall
from physics that:
Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy,
measured in watts 𝑊 .
We write this relationship as
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑞
𝑝= = . = 𝑣. 𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡
where 𝑝 is power in watts 𝑊 , 𝑤 is energy in joules 𝐽 , and 𝑡 is
time in seconds 𝑠 .

Absorbing Power

Supplying Power
18
1.5 POWER AND ENERGY
If the power has a + sign, power is being delivered to or
absorbed by the element.
If, on the other hand, the power has a − sign, power is being
supplied by the element.
Current direction and voltage polarity play a major role in
determining the sign of power.
_ _

𝑝 = 𝑢. 𝑖 𝑝 = 𝑢. 𝑖 𝑝 = 𝑢. 𝑖 𝑝 = 𝑢. 𝑖
=4×3 = 4 × −3 =4×3 = 4 × −3
19
= 12𝑊 = −12𝑊 = 12𝑊 = −12𝑊
1.5 POWER AND ENERGY
In fact, the law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any
electric circuit. For this reason, the algebraic sum of power in a
circuit, at any instant of time, must be zero:
෍𝑝 = 0

This again confirms the fact that the total power supplied to the
circuit must balance the total power absorbed.
The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time to
time t is
𝑡 𝑡
𝜔 = න 𝑝 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑣𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝑡0 𝑡0
Energy is the capacity to do work, measured in joules (J).
The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-
hours (Wh), where
1 𝑊ℎ = 3600 𝐽
20
1.5 POWER AND ENERGY
Example 1.4
An energy source forces a constant current of 2 𝐴 for 10 𝑠 to flow
through a light bulb. If 2.3 𝑘𝐽 is given off in the form of light and
heat energy, calculate the voltage drop across the bulb.
Solution
10
𝜔 = න 𝑣. 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 = 2𝑣 10 − 0 = 20𝑣
𝑡=0
𝜔 2300
⟹𝑣= = = 115 𝑉
20 20

Problem 1.4
To move charge 𝑞 from point a to point b requires −30𝐽. Find the
voltage drop 𝑣𝑎𝑏 if: (a) 𝑞 = 6𝐶, (b) 𝑞 = −3C.

21
1.5 POWER AND ENERGY
Example 1.5
Find the power delivered to an element at 𝑡 = 3𝑚𝑠 if the current
entering its positive terminal is
𝑖 = 5 cos 60𝜋𝑡 A
And the voltage is: (a) 𝑣 = 3𝑖, (b) 𝑣 = 3 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡.
Solution
(a) The voltage is 𝑣 = 3𝑖 = 15 cos 60𝜋𝑡; hence, the power is
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = 75 cos 2 60𝜋𝑡 𝑊
At 𝑡 = 3𝑚𝑠,
𝑝 = 75 cos 2 60𝜋 × 3.10−3 = 75 cos 2 0,18𝜋 = 53,48 𝑊
(b) We find the voltage and the power as
𝑑𝑖
𝑣 = 3 = −3 × 60𝜋 × 5 sin 60𝜋𝑡 = −900𝜋 sin 60𝜋𝑡 V
𝑑𝑡
𝑝 = 𝑣𝑖 = −4500𝜋 sin 60𝜋𝑡 cos 60𝜋𝑡 = −2250𝜋 sin 120𝜋𝑡
At 𝑡 = 3𝑚𝑠
𝑝 = −2250𝜋 sin 0,36𝜋 = −6396 𝑊 = −6,396 𝑘𝑊
22
1.5 POWER AND ENERGY
Problem 1.5
Find the power delivered to the element in Example 1.5 at 𝑡 =
5𝑚𝑠 if the current remains the same but the voltage is:
(a) 𝑣 = 2𝑖 𝑉
𝑡
(b) 𝑣 = 10 + 5 ‫׬‬0 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑉
Example 1.6
How much energy does a 100𝑊 electric bulb consume in two
hours?
Solution
𝜔 = 𝑝𝑡 = 100 𝑊 × 2 ℎ × 60 𝑚𝑖𝑛Τℎ × 60 𝑠Τ𝑚𝑖𝑛
= 720000 𝐽 = 720 𝑘𝐽 = 200𝑊ℎ
This is the same as
𝜔 = 100𝑊 × 2ℎ = 200 𝑊ℎ
Problem 1.6
A stove element draws 15𝐴 when connected to a 240𝑉 line. How
long does it take to consume 180𝑘𝐽? 23
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
An electric circuit is simply an interconnection of the elements.
Circuit analysis is the process of determining voltages across (or
the currents through) the elements of the circuit.
There are two types of elements found in electric circuits:
passive elements and active elements.
An active element is capable of generating energy while a
passive element is not. Examples of passive elements are
resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Typical active elements
include generators, batteries, and operational amplifiers.
The most important active elements are voltage or current
sources that generally deliver power to the circuit connected to
them.
There are two kinds of sources: independent and dependent
sources.

24
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.1 Resistors
The ability of a material to resist the flow of charge is called its
resistivity, 𝜌. Materials that are good electrical insulators have a
high value of resistivity. Materials that are good conductors of
electric current have low values of resistivity.

Resistance is the physical property of an element or device that

impedes the flow of current; it is represented by the symbol R.
25
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.1 Resistors
Resistance is the physical property of an element or device that
impedes the flow of current; it is represented by the symbol R.
Georg Simon Ohm was able to show that the current in a circuit
composed of a battery and a conducting wire of uniform cross-
section could be expressed as:
𝑣
𝑖=
𝑅
Ohm defined the constant resistance R as
𝜌𝐿
𝑅=
𝐴
Where 𝐴 is the cross-sectional area, 𝜌 the resistivity, 𝐿 the
length, and 𝑣 the voltage across the wire element.
The unit of resistance 𝑅 was named the ohm in honor of Ohm
and is usually abbreviated by the 𝜴 (capital omega) symbol,
where 𝟏𝜴 = 𝟏 𝑽/𝑨.
26
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.1 Resistors
Example 1.7
An auto battery is a 12𝑉 constant-voltage source, and the
lightbulb can be modeled by a resistor of 6 𝑜ℎ𝑚𝑠. The circuit is
shown in Figure below. Let us find the current 𝑖, the power 𝑝, and
the energy supplied by the battery for a four-hour period.
Solution
𝑖 = 𝑣Τ𝑅 = 12𝑉 Τ6Ω = 2 𝐴
𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 = 12𝑉 × 2𝐴 = 24 𝑊
𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏 = 𝑣𝑅 × 𝑖 = 𝑅 × 𝑖 2
= 6Ω × 2𝐴 2 = 24 𝑊
𝒑𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒚 = 𝒑𝒂𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃
4×3600
𝜔=න 𝑝𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑡
𝑡=0
14400
=න 24 𝑑𝑡 = 24 × 14400 = 345600 𝐽 = 345,6 𝑘𝐽
27
0
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.1 Resistors

28
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.2 Ideal independent and dependent sources
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides
a specified voltage or current that is completely independent of
other circuit elements.

Fig 1.11 Voltage sources Fig 1.12 Current

a) Constant or time-varying voltage sources
b) Constant voltage 29
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.2 Ideal independent and dependent sources
An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in
which the source quantity is controlled by another voltage or
current.

a) Dependent voltage b) Dependent current

Fig 1.13 Dependent sources 30
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.2 Ideal independent and dependent sources
Since the control of the dependent source is achieved by a
voltage or current of some other element in the circuit, and the
source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four
possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

31
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.2 Ideal independent and dependent sources
Example 1.8
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in
Fig. 1.15

Fig. 1.15
32
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.2 Ideal independent and dependent sources
Example 1.8
Calculate the power supplied or absorbed by each element in
Fig. 1.15
Solution
We apply the sign convention for power shown in Figs. 1.8 and
1.9. For 𝑝1 , the 5𝐴 current is out of the positive terminal (or into
the negative terminal); hence,
𝑝1 = 20𝑉 × 5𝐴 = 100 𝑊 → 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
For 𝑝2 and 𝑝3 , the current flows into the positive terminal of the
element in each case.
𝑝2 = 12𝑉 × 5𝐴 = 60 𝑊 → Absorbed power
𝑝3 = 8𝑉 × 6𝐴 = 48 𝑊 → Absorbed power
For 𝑝4 , we should note that the voltage is 8𝑉 (positive at the
top), the same as the voltage for 𝑝3
𝑝4 = 8𝑉 × 0,2 × 5𝐴 = 8 𝑊 → 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
33
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.2 Ideal independent and dependent sources
Problem 1.7
Compute the power absorbed or supplied by each component of
the circuit in Figure 1.16

Fig. 1.16

34
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.3 Mechanical Switches
Switches are commonly used for controlling the opening or
closing of circuits. The type of switch indicated is a single-pole–
single-throw (SPST) toggle switch. The term pole refers to the
movable arm in a switch, and the term throw indicates the number
of contacts that are affected (either opened or closed) by a single
switch action (a single movement of a pole).

35
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.3 Mechanical Switches

Figure below shows a somewhat more complicated circuit using

a single-pole–double-throw (SPDT) type of switch to control the
current to two different lamps. When one lamp is on, the other is
off, and vice versa, as illustrated by the two schematics in parts
(b) and (c), which represent each of the switch positions.

36
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.3 Mechanical Switches
In addition to the SPST and the SPDT switches, there are some
types of switches:

37
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.3 Mechanical Switches
In addition to the SPST and the SPDT switches, there are some
types of switches:

38
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.4 Semiconductor Switches
Transistors are widely used as switches in many applications. The
transistor can be used as the equivalent of a single-pole–single-
throw switch. You can open and close a circuit path by controlling
the state of the transistor.

39
1.6 CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
1.6.5 Protective Devices
Fuses and circuit breakers are used to deliberately create an
open circuit when the current exceeds a specified number of
amperes due to a malfunction or other abnormal condition in a
circuit.

40
1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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1.7 EXERCISES

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