CORRELATION

AND
REGRESSION
 OBJECTIVES OF THIS SESSION
● What is Correlation?
● Scatter Plot
● Types of Correlation
● Correlation Coefficient
● Interpretation of Correlation Coefficient
● What is Regression?
● Linear Regression
● Correlation vs. Regression
 CORRELATION
● Correlation is a statistical measure that indicates the
extent to which two or more variables fluctuate together.
● These studies have two variables that are associated and
are quanitufiable, but neither is manipulated.
● All that can be established is whether or not the two
variables are linked in some way.
 CORRELATION
Eg. Resting heart rate was significantly higher in patients with
higher fasting blood glucose levels compared with patients with
normal glucose levels. Thus positive correlation.

Eg. A negative significant correlation between fat percent and

aerobic fitness of boys, and girls respectively. Fat percentage
augmentation leads to a decrease in aerobic fitness of children.
 CORRELATION - LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
● A linear relationship describes a relation between two distinct
variables – x and y in the form of a straight line on a graph.
● When presenting a linear relationship through an equation, the
value of y is derived through the value of x, reflecting their
correlation.
● Correlation quantifies the strength and direction of a linear
relationship between two variables.
 HOW TO STUDY CORRELATION
So to determine and study the correlation , we need :-

1. A table with all the data

2. A scatter plot to understand the relationship between two
variables
3. Correlation Coefficient
4. Statistical Significance Coefficient
 DATA ORGANISATION FOR CORRELATION
Sr No. X variable Y variable Mean
1 x1 y1 X Mean = (x1 + x2+ x3+ x4+x5 ) ÷ 5
2 x2 y2 Y Mean = (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 ) ÷
5
3 x3 y3
4 x4 y4
5 x5 y5
 SCATTER PLOT
● The most useful, shows relationship between two
quantitative variables.
● The x variable - on the horizontal axis
and y variable - on the vertical axis.
● Each individual in the data is a point on the graph.
● With a sufficient number of data points, a scatter plot
can visually clarify the strength and shape of a
relationship.
SCATTER PLOT
 SCATTER PLOT
● The overall pattern of a scatterplot can be described by the
strength, direction and form of the relationship.

1. Strength of the relationship -

● The slope provides information on the strength of the
relationship.
● The strongest linear relationship occurs when the slope is 1.
This means that when one variable increases by one, the other
variable also increases by the same amount.
● This line is at a 45 degree angle.
 SCATTER PLOT
● Strength of the relationship - depending upon slope of the line
 CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
The correlation coefficient is the specific measure that quantifies the
strength of the linear relationship between two variables in a correlation
analysis.

The most commonly used correlation coefficient is Pearson’s r because it

allows for strong inferences. It’s parametric and measures linear
relationships.

Non-parametric tests of rank correlation coefficients summarize non-linear

and monotonic relationships between variables. The Spearman’s rho is
one of these tests.
 PEARSON’S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
● The Pearson’s product-moment correlation coefficient, also
known as Pearson’s r, describes the linear relationship between
two quantitative variables.
● It is a parametric test, used for data that is normally distributed.
 SPEARMAN’S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
● Spearman’s rho, or Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient.
● It’s a rank correlation coefficient because it uses the rankings of data
from each variable (e.g., from lowest to highest)
● It is a non parametric test, used for data that doesn't fall under normal
distribution.
 CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
● Range of “r” lies within -1 to +1.
● r = 0 - means there is no correlation between the two variables
● r = 1 - means perfect correlation
 CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
● r when negative = where the ● r when positive = where the
one variable increases, whereas values of both variables tend
other variable decreases - to increase together -
Negative Correlation Positive Correlation
 CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
● The values 1 and -1 both represent "perfect" correlations,
positive and negative respectively. Two perfectly correlated
variables change together at a fixed rate
CORRELATION COEFFICIENT and SCATTER PLOT
PEARSON VS SPEARMAN CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
PEARSON VS SPEARMAN CORRELATION
COEFFICIENT
 STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORRELATION

Correlation coefficients have a

probability (p-value), which
shows the probability that the
relationship between the two
variables is equal to zero (null
hypotheses; no relationship).
STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE CORRELATION
● A p-value is a statistical measurement used to validate a
hypothesis against observed data.
● A p-value less than 0.05 is typically considered to be
statistically significant, in which case the null hypothesis
should be rejected.
● A p-value greater than 0.05 means that deviation from the
null hypothesis is not statistically significant, and the null
hypothesis is accepted.
 REGRESSION
● Regression anaylsis involves identifying and evaluating
the relationship between a dependent variable and one or
more independent variables, which are also called
predictor or explanatory variables.
● Term regression is used to denote estimation or
prediction of the average value of one variable for a
specified value of the other variable.
 REGRESSION
● The ultimate purpose of regression analysis is not, however, to
predict scores we already know.
● The intent is to predict scores for a new sample of observations
from the findings on the known data.
● Therefore, it is important that the reference population for the
analysis be clearly specified, because predictions will not be
applicable to those who do not meet population criteria.
 REGRESSION
● Definitions:
1. The variable that researchers are trying to explain or predict is
called the response variable. It is also sometimes called the
dependent variable.
2. The variable that is used to explain or predict the response
variable is called the explanatory variable. It is also
sometimes called the independent variable.
 REGRESSION
In regression, the order of the variables is very important.
● The independent variable always belongs on the x-axis.
● The dependent variable always belongs on the y-axis.

● A regression line is a straight line that describes how a

response variable y changes as an explanatory variable x
changes.
● The regression line shows how much and in what direction the
response variable changes when the explanatory variable changes.
 REGRESSION
● Simple linear regression is a statistical method that allows us to
summarize and study relationships between two continuous
(quantitative) variables. There is a single continuous dependent
variable and a single independent variable.
● Multiple regression is to learn more about the relationship between
several independent or predictor variables and a dependent or
criterion variable.
 REGRESSION COEFFICIENT
● Mathematically, the regression model is represented by the
following equation:
𝐲 ^ = 𝛽0 ± 𝛽1 𝒙 ± 𝜀
Where
y^ = estimate of y value
𝛽1 = The Slope of the regression line
𝜷𝟎 = The intercept point of the regression line and the y axis.
x = independent variable
𝜀 = error
̅
 REGRESSION COEFFICIENT
𝛽1 When
- It is the Regression Coefficient that is the slope of the Regression Line
𝛽1  0 - positive regression ( greater the x, greater the y )
𝛽1  0 - negative regression ( greater the x, smaller the y )
𝛽1  0 - no regression
 REGRESSION
Study Title: Predicting exercise capacity from maximal inspiratory
pressure in COPD patients
Regression Type: Simple linear regression
Independent Variable: Maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP)
Dependent Variable: 6-minute walk distance (meters)
Findings: MIP significantly predicted walking distance.

Ramalho, et al. G. R. (2019). Inspiratory muscle strength and six-minute walking distance in
heart failure: Prognostic utility in a 10 years follow up cohort study. PloS one, 14(8), e0220638.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220638
 REGRESSION
Study Title : Regression analysis of gait parameters and mobility
measures in a healthy cohort for subject-specific normative values
Regression Type: Multiple regression
Dependent Variable:
Mobility Measures : 3-meter Timed Up and Go (3mTUG), 7-meter
Timed Up and Go (7mTUG), 10-meter Walk Test (10mWT),
Sit-to-stand time, Stand-to-sit time.
Gait Parameters : Cadence (steps/min),Ankle velocity (deg/s), Stride
time (s), Stride length (m).
 REGRESSION
Independent Variable: Age, Height, Body mass, Gender,
Self-selected walking speed
Results :
Dependent variable

Gait parameters were mostly influenced by height and walking speed.

Mobility measures were more influenced by age and walking speed.

Mikos V, Yen SC, Tay A, Heng CH, Chung CL, Liew SH, Tan DM, Au WL. Regression analysis of
gait parametersInependent variable
and mobility measures in a healthy cohort for subject-specific normative values.
PloS one. 2018 Jun 18;13(6):e0199215.
Quiz Time
 Q.1
What type
of Correlation is this ?
 Q.2 A. Correlation
To predict height of a B. Association
person when weight is
C. Regression
given?
D. Causation
 Q.3
The value of ‘p’ - A. Less than 0.05
(statistical significance) B. More than 0.05
for a statistical C. Between 0.05 to 0.01
significant result should D. Between 0.05 to 0.1
be?
 Q.4
If both variables “x” and A. No Correlation
“y” increase or B. Positive Correlation
decrease C. Negative Correlation
simultaneously, then D. None of the above
the correlation is ?
 Q.5 A. Independent Variable
The response variable B. Regression Variable
in regression analysis C. Dependent Variable
is also called ?
D. Predicted Variable
 Q.6
What type of Correlation
is this ?
 A) As ice cream sales increase, the
temperature decreases.

B) As the number of hours studied

Q.7 increases, exam scores tend to
increase.
Which of the following
scenarios BEST C) As the number of rainy days
represents a positive decreases, the number of sunny days
correlation ? increases.

D) As the number of cars on the road

increases, traffic congestion
decreases.
 A. Simple linear regression has a dependent
variable, while multiple regression does
not.

B. Simple linear regression uses one

Q.8 independent variable, while multiple
What is the main regression uses two or more.
difference between
C. Simple linear regression predicts a
simple and multiple continuous variable, while multiple
linear regression? regression predicts a categorical variable.

D. Simple linear regression is used for time

series data, while multiple regression is
used for cross-sectional data.
 A. Pearson's correlation.
Q.9
If you have data that is not B. Spearman's rank
normally distributed and correlation.
you suspect a monotonic
relationship, which C. Both are equally
correlation coefficient appropriate.
should you use?
D. Neither is appropriate.
 A. Statistical significance
Q.10
What does the “slope” of B. Strength
the scatter plot line
indicate in correlation C. Direction
study ?
D. None

43
 Take home message
● Correlation - to quantify the strength and direction of
association between two variables

● Expressed through coefficients such as Pearson’s r (for

normally distributed data) and Spearman’s rho (for ranked or
non-normal data).

● Scatter plots help visualize these relationships wrt strength of

the relationship and type of relationship

● Statistical significance (p-value < 0.05) determines whether

findings are meaningful.
 Take home message
● Regression aims to predict or estimate the value of a dependent
variable from one (simple regression) or multiple (multiple
regression) independent variables.

● The regression line explains how changes in predictors influence

outcomes.

● Correlation measures association, regression predicts outcomes.

● Both methods are crucial for clinical and research practice,

enabling us to analyze data, identify meaningful patterns, and
make informed, evidence-based decisions.
Thank You
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