TERM / STUDY BLOCK 1

Assessment and Programming 111

CHAPTER 1: INITIAL HEALTH SCREENING
INITIAL HEALTH SCREENNG 1
WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO SCREEN CLIENTS 1
ORDER OF EVALUATION AND TESTING 1
PURPOSE OF HEALTH SCREENING AND EVALUATION 1
CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE 2
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE 3
MEDICAL CLEARANCE 4
MEDICATIONS AND HEART RATE RESPONSE 4
MODELS FOR EXERCISE COUNSELLING 5
CONCLUSION 5
APPENDIX I: PERSONAL HISTORY QUESTIONNAIRE 6
APPENDIX II: CARDIAC RISK INDEX 9
APPENDIX III: PAR Q TEST 10
APPENDIX IV: INFORMED CONSENT 11
APPENDIX V (a): MEDICAL REFERRAL FORM 12
APPENDIX V (b): MEDICAL REFERRAL FORM 13
APPENDIX VI: KARVONEN FORMULA 14
APPENDIX VII: APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP AND INDEMNITY 15

CHAPTER 2: RESTING VALUES AND BODY COMPOSITION

INTRODUCTION 1
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FITNESS TESTING 1
PREPARATION FOR FITNESS TESTING 1
COMPONENTS OF FITNESS 1
CONSENT FORMS 2
FITNESS TESTS CATEGORISED BY COMPONENTS OF FITNESS 2
Resting Values 3
Blood Pressure and Heart Rate 3
Blood pressure protocol 4
Pulse 5
Waist to Hip Ratio 7
Body composition 8
Classification of Body Types (Somatotypes) 13
Waist to Hip Ratio 15
ANNEXURE I (a): PERCENTAGE FAT ESTIMATE FOR WOMEN 16
ANNEXURE I (b): PERCENTAGE FAT ESTIMATE FOR WOMEN 17

CHAPTER 3: INITIAL PHASE OF EXERCISE PROGRAMME DESIGN INITIAL

PHASE OF EXERCISE PROGRAMME DESIGN 1
METHODS FOR DEVELOPING COMPONENTS OF FITNESS 1
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Muscular Fitness 1
Muscular Endurance 2
Muscular Strength 3
Muscular Power 4
Speed 4
Muscular Power Endurance 4
Motor Skill Performance 5
Flexibility 6
Cardio-respiratory Endurance 7
Body Composition 11

TERM / STUDY BLOCK 2

Assessment and Programming 112
CHAPTER 1: FLEXIBILITY, POSTURE, POWER
FLEXIBILITY TESTS 1
POSTURE 3
MUSCULAR POWER 8

CHAPTER 2: PERIODISATION OF AN ANNUAL PROGRAMME

PERIODISATION OF PROGRAMMES 1
Signs of Over-training 1
Overview of Three General Phases of Exercise Programmes 1
Four periodisation phases of programme design 2
CONCLUSION 5

TERM / STUDY BLOCK 3 & 4

Assessment and Programming 120

CHAPTER 1: STRENGTH, MUSCLE ENDURANCE, CARDIOVASCULAR TESTS

MUSCULAR STRENGTH TESTS 1
MUSCULAR ENDURANCE TESTS 3
CARDIOVASCULAR TESTS 5
CONCLUSION 6
APPENDIX I: ROCKPORT ONE MILE ESTIMATED MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE 7
APPENDIX II: COOPER 12 MINUTES FIELD TEST TO MEASURE VO2 MAX 11

CHAPTER 2: DESIGNING MICROCYCLES

INTRODUCTION 1
PROGRAMME DESIGN FOR MICROCYCLE 1
DESIGNING A ONE-DAY PROGRAMME 1
CIRCUIT TRAINING 3
COMPONENTS OF EXERCISE PROGRAMMES 4
BENEFITS OF A PERSONALISED EXERCISE PROGRAMME 7
GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING A WORKOUT FOR THE GENERAL POPULATION
GROUP 8
 SAMPLE CASE STUDY 8
CONCLUSION 11

CHAPTER 3: ELECTIVE - SAFETY

INTRODUCTION 1
HEALTH AND SAFETY 1
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS 1
LEGAL AND INSURANCE ISSUES 4
APPENDIX A: RECOMMENDED FIRST AID KIT 6
APPENDIX B: REPS Code of Conduct 7
APPENDIX C: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE 10
APPENDIX D: SASCOC CODE OF CONDUCT 11

CHAPTER 4: ELECTIVE TRAINING IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS

INTRODUCTION 1
PLANNING A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE PROGRAMME USING SMALL PORTABLE
EQUIPMENT 1
PROGRAMME LAYOUT 1
Basic Programme Layout 1
STEP 1: Identify a safe exercise environment 1
STEP 2: Identify which objects in the environment 1
STEP 3: Design the programme 3
STEP 3.1: Warm-up 3
STEP 3.2: Main set 7
RESISTANCE EXERCISE INTENSITY 19
STEP 4: CARDIO-RESPIRATORY EXERCISE 20
Step 5: Cool-down 22
CONCLUSION 22

CHAPTER 5: SPORTS SPECIFIC TRAINING PROGRAMMES

INTRODUCTION 1
THE ROLE OF THE CONDITIONING COACH 1
OBSERVATION OF THE ATHLETE 1
ASSESSMENT OF THE ATHLETE 2
SPORT SPECIFIC EXERCISE SESSION LAYOUT 4
Cool-down 19
CONCLUSION 20
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 PERSONAL TRAINER

Assessment and
Programming 111
CHAPTER 1: INITIAL HEALTH SCREENING
CHAPTER 2: RESTING VALUES AND BODY COMPOSITION
CHAPTER 3: INITIAL PHASE OF EXERCISE PROGRAMME DESIGN

Duration: Term 1
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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING

CHAPTER 1: INITIAL
HEALTH SCREENING
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The focus of this chapter is to describe the initial assessment

protocols used to identify the client’s goals, past and present activity
and medical history.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

 Demonstrate health screening and evaluation techniques.

 Complete and interpret paper based documentation i.e.
Personal History Questionnaire, PAR-Q and Cardiac Risk
Index.
 Understand when it is necessary to refer an individual to a
physician (either because of health reasons or medication
usage).
 Draw up a comprehensive Medical Referral Form with all
relevant and correct information
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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 1
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INITIAL HEALTH SCREENNG

1.1 WHY IT IS IMPORTANT TO SCREEN CLIENTS

Although regular, appropriate exercise will add to the quality of life exercise can pose a health risk for people with
musculoskeletal, pulmonary or cardiovascular disorders, particularly coronary heart disease (also known as coronary
artery disease or atherosclerotic heart disease). It is therefore important to screen all people who wish to join a health
club or start on an exercise programme.

1.2 ORDER OF EVALUATION AND TESTING

1. Personal History Questionnaire, Cardiac Risk Index, and Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire (Appendix
I, II and II on page 6, 9 and 10).
2. Discuss tests with the client and request he/she signs the Informed Consent Form (Appendix IV on page 11).
3. Take resting pulse rate and blood pressure. If physician referral is indicated, now is the time. Record any
abnormalities and request physician clearance before continuing. Complete the Medical Referral Form
(Appendix V on page 12 and 13) and hand it to your client to take to his/her physician before testing.
4. Order of assessment: Body composition, flexibility, posture, muscular power and strength, muscular
endurance, cardiovascular. Refer to module 2 chapter 2 for assessment protocols.
5. After assessment work out the training heart rate according to the Karvonen Formula (Appendix VI on page
14).

1.3 PURPOSE OF HEALTH SCREENING AND EVALUATION

Because of the high incidence of heart disease it is essential to screen people who wish to join a health club or
start an exercise programme. Your first concern is to determine whether an individual needs special
consideration. This indicates concern for the client, enhances your credibility as an instructor and promotes client
confidence. The idea is not to worry people, but to go about your job quietly and professionally and gain the
confidence of your clients.

Fortunately “exercise emergencies” are rare, but with more and more people taking up exercise and many instructors
moving into the field of exercise for the elderly, the obese and other specialised areas, screening, testing and evaluation
have become an increasingly important part of the fitness practitioners responsibilities.

There used to be a popular prediction that “if you’re a weekend athlete, you will die at the weekend” based on
the belief that if you have heart disease and you exercise, you will probably die while you are exercising. We now know
that if you have heart disease and you do not exercise, you will die anyway – and probably sooner, without enjoying
the quality of a healthy life!

It is now generally accepted that physical inactivity is a health hazard and that regular, appropriate exercise will add
to the quality of life. However, exercise can pose a health problem for people with high risk factors; it is therefore the
trainer’s responsibility to do everything possible to:

 Promote exercise and physical fitness

 Make exercise safe for all participants

1.3.1 Purpose of Initial Assessment

Reasons why everyone should be evaluated:

 To open the lines of communication between fitness instructors and medical professionals

 To protect the instructor against possible legal repercussions

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 To establish the present status of the individual in order to plan an effective training
programme within his/her capabilities

 To determine the needs of the individual within the programme

 To determine objectively whether the individual has achieved his/her goals and to ensure
continued effectiveness of the programme

1.3.2 Functions of Health Screening and Evaluation

Health Screening and evaluation, in the case of exercise instruction, has three broad functions:

 To provide more relevant information regarding the client. Detailed knowledge of the
client’s physical condition, medications, capabilities and current limitations is essential if the
programme is to be personalised and monitored according to the client’s needs.

 To determine the effectiveness of the programme and to make changes/adaptations for

improvement where indicated.

 To motivate clients by illustrating improvement in tangible terms

1.3.3 What to do with Information gathered from Screening and Assessments

This information will enable the instructor to design a programme to:

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 Compensate for individual physical and biomechanical deficiencies

 Avoid potential dangers

1.4 CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE

In many cases people with coronary artery disease are unaware of their condition. They may be asymptomatic or, for
reasons of their own, they may choose to ignore the symptoms by which the disease can be diagnosed. Health
screening procedures that will identify people with risk factors are therefore strongly recommended before accepting
anyone onto an exercise programme.

The coronary arteries supply the heart with blood and therefore with ATHEROSCLEROSIS:
the nutrients and oxygen necessary for it to function. The coronary A degenerative disease of the arteries
arteries are especially susceptible to atherosclerosis – a build-up of characterised by a hardening and
fatty-fibrotic lesions on the walls of the arteries (atherosclerotic plaque). narrowing of the artery walls caused by
As the disease progresses this becomes calcified and blood flow to the endothelial cell damage and fatty
heart is restricted resulting in myocardial ischaemia. This condition deposits, mainly cholesterol.
can cause angina pectoris, a feeling of heaviness (pressure) in the
chest or extreme pain, generally in the left side of the chest radiating
to the left arm and shoulder. Myocardial ischaemia can also be the
cause of myocardial infarction (heart attack) and cardiac arrest MYOCARDIAL ISCHAEMIA:
(the heart stops beating). Insufficient oxygen supply to the heart
muscle.

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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 3
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1.4.1 Risk Factors associated with Coronary Heart Disease are:

Primary risk factors

 Cigarette smoking
 Hypertension
 Abnormal blood cholesterol levels (either high total cholesterol: high LDL and/or low HDL levels)

Secondary risk factors

 Obesity
 Age – over 65
 Gender – males are more susceptible
 Family history of coronary heart disease in relatives under 65
 Sedentary lifestyle
 Diabetes Mellitus
 Psychological stress

1.4.2 Assessment Tools to Identify Cardiac Risk

The CARDIAC RISK INDEX (APPENDIX II on page 9) can be used to assess cardiac risk.

Exercise can also present a health risk for people with other diseases and disorders, therefore a comprehensive
Personal History Questionnaire (APPENDIX I on page 6) should be completed by all potential clients.
This must provide (at least) the following information:

 Risks for major diseases

 Back pain and problems
 Musculoskeletal problems or conditions
 Information on exercise participation
 Medications

Where a questionnaire reveals medical symptoms, risk factors or conditions which could have a bearing on individual
safety and/or the client’s response to exercise, REFERRAL TO A PHYSICIAN is important. To assist the physician
to assess the client’s readiness for exercise, a MEDICAL REFERRAL FORM (APPENDIX V on page 12 and 13)
should be drawn up providing the physician with all relevant information. It is important to keep this and the
physician’s signed medical clearance on file, together with the Personal History Questionnaire and all other health
and progress records.

1.5 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE

The PAR Q TEST (Physical Activity Readiness Questionnaire – APPENDIX III on page 10) is considered by
many people to be a good starting point to indicate whether a person should be referred to a physician before taking
part in physical activity. However, since more information will be required from the client before recommending an
exercise programme it makes sense to start off with a more comprehensive questionnaire that will avoid asking
for more information at a later stage.

(Refer to Appendix I Personal History Questionnaire and Appendix III Par Q Test)
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1.6 MEDICAL CLEARANCE

It is important that people who display any of the following risk factors be referred to a physician before starting a
programme.

 History of heart disease

NB:  Hypertension
List of clients who  Chronic illness
must be referred  Sedentary individuals (men over 40 years, women over 45 years)
 Pregnancy or postpartum
to a physician
 Problems occurring in the past with physical activity - depending on severity
before partaking in
 Any musculoskeletal problem that could be aggravated by exercise
an exercise  Recent surgery
programme.

The presence of any of the following indicates that referral to a physician is appropriate, but not essential:

 History of lung problems, including chronic bronchitis, emphysema or asthma

 Diabetes Mellitus, particularly if insulin is being administered (NB. A diabetic client must not be
accepted in to an exercise programme unless the diabetes is controlled)
 Habitual cigarette smoking
 Obesity
 High blood cholesterol
 History of heart problems in the immediate family

Many people take medication that can affect heart rate – this information is required in the Personal History
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Questionnaire and the Medical Referral Form. However, clients should be made aware from the outset that they must
inform their trainer of any change in medication or any new medication, prescribed or non-prescribed; client’s
must be made aware of the importance of giving their trainer this information. Unusual heart rate response to exercise
could be the result of medication - perhaps the client is taking diet pills and doesn’t want anyone to know. If there is
no apparent reason for the change, referral to a physician is recommended.

1.7 MEDICATIONS AND HEART RATE RESPONSE

Some classes of medication have variable effects on heart rate and different individuals can respond differently to the
same drug. Also the time medication is administered in relation to the exercise session can have a bearing on response.
For this reason it is important to receive instructions from a client’s physician. The following are general guidelines
as to the effect of medication on heart rate response.

1.7.1 Heart Rate Response to Medicine

Increase heart rate

 Antihistamines (do not always increase heart rate)
 Diet pills containing amphetamines and those with sympathomimetic activity
 Cold medications with sympathomimetic activity
 Caffeine
 Nicotine
 Alcohol may increase the resting and exercising heart rate
 Bronchodilators and asthma medications (not all asthma medications)
 Medications for an underactive thyroid
 Some anti-depressants increase resting heart rate

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Decrease heart rate

 Beta blockers
 Central nervous system depressants
 Some tranquillisers

No effect on heart rate

 Diuretics
 Antibiotics
 Anti-depressants
 Anti-coagulants
 Aspirin
 Insulin

Anti-hypertensive drugs can have any of the above effects on heart rate.

1.8 MODELS FOR EXERCISE COUNSELLING

 Introduction (client information, PAR-Q, pre exercise plan sheet and assessment advice sheet)

 Interaction (informed consent, establish and clarify wants and expected needs and explain
assessment procedures)

 Fitness assessment (perform assessments, present information and discuss and explain results)

 Exercise counselling (discuss wants, needs and activity preferences, state of change, identify
resources and frame outcome)

 Consensus (match needs and wants with activity preferences and methods)

 Goal setting (agree on SMART goals, write goal contract, set up support structure and agree on
evaluation date)

 Action (client self-development project)

 Evaluation (client exercise programme evaluation sheet and programme)

CONCLUSION

Once the trainer has gathered information about the client’s past and present health and fitness status, an informed
decision can be made as to whether the client is ready for the next step or whether prior referral for medical clearance
is required.
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APPENDIX I: PERSONAL HISTORY QUESTIONNAIRE

MEDICAL HISTORY QUESTIONNAIRE

Section A
1. When last did you have a physical examination?
2. If you are allergic to any foods, medications, or other substances, please name:
3. If you have been told that you have any chronic or serious illnesses, please list below:
4. Give the following information pertaining to the last 3 times you have been hospitalized:
Hospitilisation1: Hospitalisation2: Hospitalisation3:
Reason for _____________________ ____________________________ ____________________________
Hospitalisation: _________________ ____________________________ ____________________________
Month and year _________________ ____________________________ ____________________________
of hospitalisation: _______________ ____________________________ ____________________________
Hospital: _______________________ ____________________________ ____________________________
City and state: __________________ ____________________________ ____________________________

Section B:
During the last 12 months:

1. Has a physician prescribed any form of medication for you?

Yes No
2. Has your weight fluctuated more than a few kilograms?
Yes No
3. Did you attempt to bring about this weight change through diet or exercise?
Yes No
4. Have you experienced any faintness, light-headedness, or blackouts?
Yes No
5. Have you occasionally had trouble sleeping?
Yes No
6. Have you experienced any blurred vision?
Yes No
7. Have you had any severe headaches?
Yes No
8. Have you experienced chronic morning couch?
Yes No
9. Have you experienced any temporary change in your speech pattern, such as
Yes No slurring or loss of speech?
10. Have you felt unusually nervous or anxious for no apparent reason?
Yes No
11. Have you experienced unusual heartbeats such as skipped beats or
Yes No palpitations?
12. Have you experienced periods in which your heart felt as though it were
Yes No racing for no apparent reason?

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At present:

Yes No
1. Do you experience shortness or loss of breath while walking with others
Yes No your own age?
2. Do you experience sudden tingling, numbness, or loss of feeling in your
Yes No arms, hands, legs, feet, or face?
3. Have you ever noticed that your hands or feet sometimes feel cooler than
Yes No other parts of your body?
4. Do you experience swelling of your feet or ankles?
Yes No
5. Do you get pains or cramps in your legs?
Yes No
6. Do you experience any pain or discomfort in your chest?
Yes No
7. Do you experience any pressure or heaviness in your chest?
Yes No
8. Have you ever been told that your blood pressure was abnormal?
Yes No
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9. Have you ever been told that your serum cholesterol or triglycerides level
Yes No was high?
10. Do you have diabetes?
Yes No
11. If yes, how is it controlled?
Yes No
12. Have you ever been told that you have any of the following illnesses?
Myocardial infarction Arteriosclerosis
Heart disease Thyroid disease
Coronary thrombosis Rheumatic heart
Heart attack Heart valve disease
Coronary occlusion Heart failure
Heart murmur Heart block
Aneurysm Angina

13. Have you ever had any of the following medical procedures?
Heart surgery Pacemaker implant
Cardiac catheterization Defibrilator
Coronary angioplasty Heart transplantation
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Section C
Has any member of your immediate family been treated for or suspected to have any of these conditions? Please
identify relationship to you (mother, sister, brother etc.)
i) Diabetes
ii) Stroke
iii) Heart disease
iv) High blood pressure

(From Vivian H. Heyward, 2006, Advanced Fitness Assessment and Exercise Prescription, 5 th ed. (Champaign, IL:
Human Kinetics)

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APPENDIX II: CARDIAC RISK INDEX

CARDIAC RISK INDEX

1 AGE 10 to 20 21 to 30 31 to 40 41 to 50 51 to 60 61 to 70
1 2 3 4 6 8
2 HEREDITY No known 1 relative 2 relatives 1 relative 2 relatives 3 relatives
history of with CV with CV with CV with CV with CV
heart disease disease over disease disease disease disease
60 under 60 under 60 under 60 under 60
1 2 3 4 6 8
3 WEIGHT More than Standard 2.2 – 9 kg 9 - 15 kg 16 – 22 kg 23 – 29 kg
2.2 kg below weight overweight overweight overweight overweight
standard
weight
0 1 2 3 5 7
4 TOBACCO Non user Cigar and or 10 20 30 40
SMOKING pipe cigarettes a cigarettes a cigarettes a cigarettes a
day day day day
0 1 2 3 5 8
5 EXERCISE Intensive Moderate Sedentary Sedentary Sedentary Complete
occupational occupational work and work and work and lack of all
and and intense moderate light exercise
recreational recreational recreational recreational recreational
exertion exertion exertion exertion exertion
1 2 3 5 6 8
6 STRESS LEVEL Never have Rarely tense Feel tense Feel tense Usually Extremely
stress or anxious about 3 or anxious rushed. tense.
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times/ 2 - 3 times/ Frequent Frequently

week day. anger angry.
Frequent Always
anger rushed.
Take
tranquilisers
1 2 3 5 6 8
7 CHOLESTEROL Cholesterol Cholesterol Cholesterol Cholesterol Cholesterol Cholesterol
OR FAT IN below 181 - 206 - 231 - 256 - 281 -
DIET 180mg. diet 205mg. diet 230mg. diet 255mg. diet 280mg. diet 330mg. diet
contains no contains contains contains contains contains
animal or 10% animal 20% animal 30% animal 40% animal 50% animal
solid fats or solid fats or solid fats or solid fats or solid fats or solid fats
1 2 3 4 5 7
8 BLOOD 100 upper 120 upper 140 upper 160 upper 180 upper 200 upper
PRESSURE reading reading reading reading reading reading
1 2 3 4 5 8
9 SEX Female Female over Male Bald male Bald, short Bald, short,
45 male stocky male
1 2 3 4 6 8
CALCULATION
Add together the various values of the parameters applicable on yourself. Compare it to the key to find your
risk for Cardiovascular (CV) disease.
KEY
Group 1 = 7-12 very low
Group 2 = 13-19 low
Group 3 = 20 -28 average
Group 4 = 29 – 34 high risk
Group 5 = 35 – 48 dangerous risk
Group 6 = 45 – 70 extremely dangerous
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APPENDIX III: PAR Q TEST

PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE (PAR-Q)

A self-administered questionnaire for adults

PAR-Q is designed to help you help yourself. Many health benefits are associated with regular exercise, and the completion of
the PAR-Q is a sensible first step to take if you are planning to increase the amount of physical activity in your life.
For most people physical activity should not pose any problem or hazard. The PAR-Q has been designed to identify the small
number of adults for whom physical activity might be inappropriate or those who should have medical advice concerning the
type of activity most suitable for them.
Please read the following questions carefully and answer all honestly: Check the YES or NO box as appropriate.

YES NO
Has the Doctor ever said that you have a heart condition and that you should only do physical
activity recommended by a doctor?
Please explain:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Do you feel pain in your chest when you do physical activity?

Please explain:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

In the past month, have you had chest pain when you are not doing any physical activity?
Please explain:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Do you lose balance because of dizziness or do you ever lose consciousness?

Please explain:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Do you have a bone or joint problem that could be made worse by a change in your physical
activity?
Please explain:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Has the Doctor currently prescribed medication for blood pressure or heart condition?
Please explain:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

Do you know of any reason you should not do physical activity?

Please explain:
______________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

The above questions were adapted from the original questions from the Canadian “PAR-Q” questionnaire (ACSM,
2006).
YES for any or more questions NO to all questions POSTPONE

If you have not recently done so If you answered the PAR-Q If you have a temporary minor
consult your personal physician by accurately, you have reasonable illness (i.e. a cold), you may re-
telephone or in person BEFORE assurance of your present do do the PAR-Q once
increasing your physical activity and/ suitability for: recovered
or taking a fitness test. Tell them the Graduated exercise programme
questions you answered YES to on AND an Exercise test
the PAR-Q

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APPENDIX IV: INFORMED CONSENT

I ______________________ have been informed in detail of the fitness tests which I am about to undertake, the
possible risks, discomforts and benefits of the tests.

I understand the tests procedures and hereby consent to participate in the tests listed below and in the exercise
programme recommended for me by _________________ (studio name).

TESTS

1. ...............................................................................

2. ..............................................................................

3. ..............................................................................

4. ..............................................................................

5. ..............................................................................

6. ..............................................................................

7. ..............................................................................

8. ..............................................................................
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Signed: _____________________________

Witness: ____________________________

Witness: ____________________________

Date: _______________________________
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APPENDIX V (a): MEDICAL REFERRAL FORM

Date:
Address:
Contact number:

Dear Doctor

Your patient ______________ ______wishes to take part in the following exercise programme:

Type: ______________________ Duration: _________________________

Frequency: _________________ Intensity: _________________________

I am referring him/ her for medical clearance for the following reason/s:

___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Please indicate whether this patient is taking prescribed medication and if so the effect of this medication on
heart rate response:

Type of medication: _____________________________

Effect of medication: ____________________________

Please indicate hereunder any further recommendations, needs or appropriate restrictions for your patient with
regard to his/ her exercise programme.

___________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Yours sincerely

Instructor’s name: _____________________________

For completion by Physician:

I have medically examined ___________________________________ and in my opinion he/ she is fit to

participate in the ________________________ programme subject to the recommendations/ restrictions above

Signed _______________________ Date: _________________________

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APPENDIX V (b): MEDICAL REFERRAL FORM

This form to be handed to your physician for completion and return

To: _______________________________ (Physician’s name and address)

__________________________________

__________________________________

__________________________________

___________________________________ (Patients name) has applied to join

___________________________________ (Studio)

In view of the points marked on the attached Personal History Questionnaire we require your medical approval
before allowing his/ her active participation in our fitness programme. Please complete the form below indicating
limitations and recommendations where you see fit.

If this patient is on medication, please indicate the type and effect of the medication, particularly in respect of
heart rate response to exercise.

Signed: ______________________
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I have examined ___________ of ____________________ (address)

And recommend the following:

1. That he/ she should NOT participate in a fitness programme;

2. That he/ she should participate in a fitness programme with the following recommnedations/ limitations:
-

___________________________________________________________

Medication: ________________________ Effect: ___________________

Comments:
___________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

Signed: _____________________ Date: ____________________________

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APPENDIX VI: KARVONEN FORMULA

The Karvonen Formula is a mathematical calculation that is used to determine exercise heart rate (HR) and
training zone. The formula uses maximum and resting heart rate to identify the desired training intensity
(www.topendsports.com/fitness/karvonen-formula.htm).

The formula is as follows:

THR = % (MHR – RHR) + RHR

Therefore the THR calculation for a person aged 20 with RHR of 70 bpm exercising at 80% of HR reserve is as
follows:

MHR (200) – RHR (70) = 130

THR = (80% x 130) + 70

= 104 + 70

= 174 bpm

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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 15
CHAPTER 1: INITIAL HEALTH SCREENING

APPENDIX VII: APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP AND INDEMNITY

APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP AND INDEMNITY

I, the undersigned, hereby apply for membership of _____________________________(your studio) and agree
to pay the fees as laid down monthly in advance, until the termination of my membership on givining of one
months notice.

I confirm that I am medically fit to undergo the normal course prescribed by ____________________

I understand that udner no circumstances whatsoever shall _______________________ or anyone representing

__________________________ be held liable for, or responsible for, any damage or otherwise for loss, damage
or expense suffered by me or my estate or anyone claiming by or through me and whether due to negligence,
omission or otherwise due to my presence at any place used by _________________________ and/ or indulging
in exercise, diets or treatments for all of which I indemnify ___________________, its principal and its
representatives.

Dated at _______________ __ this ________ day of _____________ 20_____

Signed: ____________________ FULL NAMES: (Print ) _______________________

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RESTING VALUES AND
BODY COMPOSITION
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This chapter provides an overview of the assessment protocols

for each of the components of fitness.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

 Demonstrate the ability to use evaluation ‘instruments’

and interpret evaluation results.
 Demonstrate the ability to prepare an individual for
exercise testing, i.e. preparation protocol and informed
consent.
 Choose the appropriate tests for an individual.
 Demonstrate the ability to conduct all tests accurately,
following all protocols with appropriate customer care
skills.
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INTRODUCTION
This chapter aims to provide an overview of the components of fitness and describe fitness tests for each of these
components. Fitness testing is an effective way to determine individual strengths and weaknesses and monitor
improvements; it also provides the trainer with guidelines regarding programme modifications to suit individual
needs. If fitness testing is to be done, appropriate tests must be conducted after the health screening and medical
clearance, but before the client commences a programme. Follow up tests are usually conducted every four to six
weeks thereafter.

2.1 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FITNESS TESTING

Advantages of fitness testing:

 Set realistic goals and provide a starting point against which improvements can be measured
(thus tests can serve as a motivational tool)

 Help the instructor tailor exercise programmes according to individual abilities and needs,
as well as set individual goals

 Help identify biomechanical and medical problems or health risks (risk assessment)

 Provide an edge in the market (display professionalism and customer care)

 Reduce negligence
Disadvantages of fitness testing:

 Cost of equipment
 Time consuming
 Client may find process intimidating
 Places too much negative emphasis on issues of which the client is already aware

2.2 PREPARATION FOR FITNESS TESTING

Clients should be PREPARED as follows for a fitness test:

 Wear comfortable clothing

 Do not eat for at least 2 to 3 hours before the test
 Do not drink alcohol or coffee or smoke for 3 hours before the test
 Avoid heavy exercise the day before the test
 Ensure adequate hydration
 Arrive early to allow time to relax before starting the assessment

2.3 COMPONENTS OF FITNESS

There are various definitions of physical fitness and physical conditioning, but for the purposes of these study
notes we will focus on the following:

There are five basic components of physical fitness. All, or at least most components, should be assessed during
the initial and subsequent fitness test sessions. The tests that assess each component of fitness are described later
in this chapter.
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 Body composition: Refers to the body fat percentage in relation to lean body tissue (lean:
fat ratio)

 Flexibility: The ability to move a muscle and/or joint through its maximum range of motion

 Muscular power: The ability to apply a force against a resistance at a maximal velocity

 Muscular strength: The ability to apply force against resistance (resistance training)

 Muscular endurance: The ability to work a muscle repeatedly over a period of time (light
weights, high reps)

 Cardio-respiratory endurance: The ability to exercise at low/medium intensity for long

periods of time (aerobic exercise)

A sixth component – motor skill performance – is often added to this list, but it is debated whether it should
be included as a component of physical fitness or not.

While the 5 listed components are health related as opposed to skills related, the point may be made that
although certain types of exercise improve co-ordination, it is possible for a person with a low fitness level to
be highly skilled and vice versa.

Although enjoyment is an important constituent of any exercise programme, it is not classified as a component
of fitness.
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If all of the above components are included in the exercise session, it should promote the development and
improvement of balance, dexterity, speed, co-ordination and explosive energy.

2.4 CONSENT FORMS

Before commencing assessment, the risks and benefits of the tests should be discussed with the client, who
should then consent to undergoing the tests (Appendix V: INFORMED CONSENT FORM on page 37 and 38).
Informed consent forms should describe the testing activities and provide a place for consent to each
activity. The purpose of this test is to:
 Inform the client of the potential risks and benefits involved in exercise
 Allow the client to consent or refuse the service
 Allow the client to accept responsibility for everything that has been stated in the consent
form

2.5 FITNESS TESTS CATEGORISED BY COMPONENTS OF FITNESS

The following tests (indicating strengths and weaknesses of each component of fitness) do not require
sophisticated equipment and can be used to measure individual improvement.

Ask the following questions to identify a good testing protocol:

 Does the test measure what it claims to (validity)?

 Does the test yield accurate results (accuracy)?
 Are accurate results reproducible time after time in order to make the test reliable
(reproducibility)?
 Can the test be completed in a reasonable amount of time (time)?
 Is the time, equipment and cost reasonable for the information and results obtained?
 Is the test specifically related to the client’s needs and goals?
 Is this test safe for the client?

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Exercise Testing Order

1. Take resting pulse, blood pressure (if any are abnormal request physician clearance before
continuing). Work out training heart rate according to Karvonen Formula.
2. Body composition
3. Flexibility
4. Posture
5. Muscular power and strength
6. Muscular endurance
7. Cardiovascular

2.5.1 Resting Values

Resting values should be taken within the first few minutes of waking up in the morning. When this is not
possible the trainer should take the heart rate and blood pressure once the client arrives and has sat down
and relaxed for a few minutes. Here follows the assessment methods of how to take heart rate and blood
pressure.

2.5.2 Blood Pressure and Heart Rate

Blood pressure is the pressure created in the arteries when the heart pumps blood to the body. Blood pressure
is measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg). Systolic pressure (the upper reading) represents the pressure
created in the blood vessels as the heart contracts; this is the maximum pressure created by the heart during
a complete cardiac cycle.

Diastolic pressure (the lower reading) represents the pressure remaining in the arteries between contractions
(i.e. during the filling phase of the cardiac cycle); this is the minimum pressure within the arteries during a
complete cardiac cycle.
Blood pressure of 120/80 mmHg is considered normal. Systolic hypertension is diagnosed when the systolic
measurement is 140 mmHg or greater on two or more separate occasions. Similarly, diastolic hypertension is
diagnosed when the diastolic blood measurement is equal to or greater than 90 mmHg on two or more
separate occasions.

Table 2.1 Blood Pressure Classification (ACSM, 2000)

Classification Systolic BP Diastolic BP

(mmHg) (mmHg)

Hypotension ≤ 90 ≤ 60

Optimal < 120 < 80

Normal 120 – 129 80 – 84

High Normal 130 – 139 85 – 89

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Hypertension
Phase 1 140 – 159 90 – 99
Phase 2 160 – 179 100 – 109
Phase 3 180+ 110+

Method for measuring blood pressure

The “Gold Standard” for assessing blood pressure is the direct measurement of intra-arterial BP (Hayward,
2002). In the field setting however, BP is typically measured indirectly by auscultation using a stethoscope
and sphygmomanometer (consisting of a BP cuff and aneroid/mercury meter).
Since stress can elevate blood pressure, measurement should be taken in a quiet, comfortable setting to
ensure a reasonable estimate of resting blood pressure.

A client should sit quietly for at least 5 minutes before his/her blood pressure is taken. When blood pressure
is taken, the client should be seated and his/her arm should be rested on a table so that it is level with the
heart.
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Figure 2.1 Blood pressure assessment

Blood pressure protocol

If there is a discrepancy
 The cuff of this device is placed around the arm above between readings taken
the level of the elbow. on different arms, it
could indicate the
 As air is pumped into the cuff, pressure is directed existence of a
inward, compressing the brachial artery. circulatory problem.

 A stethoscope is placed over the artery (about 1cm

superior and medial to the antecubital fossa) and air is slowly released from the cuff.

 At the point where the blood pressure exceeds the cuff pressure, the first sound is heard –
this is the SYSTOLIC pressure; the sound is produced by the blood forcing open the
compressed artery.

 As more air is released, the sounds become fainter; DIASTOLIC pressure is read when the
sounds disappear.

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As the pressure is released, the so-called Korotkoff sounds can be heard in distinct phases:
The first sound signifies the beginning of the first phase and represents the systolic blood pressure reading.
As the mercury continues to fall, the sound will change in quality to a louder, sharp tapping; this represents
the second and third phases that are of no particular significance.

When measuring resting blood pressure, the fourth and fifth phases (where the sound disappears) usually
coincide.

Diastolic blood pressure is read when the sound disappears entirely. However, during exercise, the fourth
phase may be a muffling of sound, representing the diastolic blood pressure. The fifth phase (muffled sound)
sometimes disappears shortly thereafter, but it may last until the pressure is completely released.

Derived from: http://gleez.com/files/images/bp.bmp

2.5.3 Pulse

Before you measure resting heart rate, your client should rest for 5 to 10 minutes in a supine or seated
position.

To be able to assess their own intensity levels, clients should know the sites and techniques by which to
measure pulse rate.

Pulse sites are:

 Wrist: The radial pulse can be felt on the radial artery of the wrist, in line with the thumb.
Place the tips of the index and middle fingers (not the thumb which has a pulse of its own)
lightly over the artery.

 Temple: During exercise the temporal pulse can be felt easily on either side of the
temple, in front of the upper part of the ear. Place the index and middle fingers lightly over
the artery. This site is recommended for obese people as there is little fat here.

 Neck: The carotid pulse can be felt on either of the carotid arteries located on the neck on
each side of the gullet. Place the index and middle fingers gently over the carotid artery.
NB. Too much pressure may stimulate a reflex mechanism that causes the heart to slow
down. Do not palpate both carotid arteries at the same time.

 Chest: The apical pulse, taken at the apex of the heart, can be felt most clearly after heavy
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exercise. Place the heel of the hand over the left side of the chest.

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Other pulse sites sometimes recommended include the groin (over the femoral artery) and the inside of the
elbow over the brachial artery (the most commonly used site for blood pressure reading).

The pulse can be taken for 6 seconds (and multiplied by 10), for 10 seconds (and multiplied by 6) or for 15 seconds
(and multiplied by 4); the 10-second count is considered the most accurate. The pulse should be taken within 5
seconds of stopping exercise as heart rate begins to decrease as soon as exercise stops. Clients should be
encouraged to keep moving while taking the pulse to prevent pooling of blood in the extremities.

The first pulse should be counted as zero as the pulse beat represents one cardiac cycle, beginning on the
first beat and ending on the second. Some people prefer to start on 1 because it provides a safety margin for
target heart rate, but whatever method you use, be consistent. Refer to table 2.1 for normative values of
resting heart rate.

Beginners should be encouraged to take a pulse reading every 5 to 10 minutes in a 30 minute workout to become
familiar with the relationship between heart rate and workload and to help monitor their own exercise intensity.

Once the beginner becomes familiar with his/her response to exercise, heart rate can be taken less often - every
10- 15 minutes.

Table 2.2 Normative values for Resting Heart rate

Classification Heart Rate (bpm)

Very fit <40

Fit 40 – 59

Average 60 – 79
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Unfit 80 – 100

Very Unfit 100+

Both blood pressure and heart rate can be used to monitor the client’s response to exercise. Following are
alternative methods for monitoring someone’s response to exercise intensity.
Alternative methods for measuring response to exercise intensity

The talk test

This is a simple, but effective test that is based on the theory that people exercising at a desirable intensity should
be able to breathe comfortably, deeply and rhythmically, i.e. carry on a conversation.
If one oversteps the anaerobic threshold one will become out of breath and unable to talk. Because the accuracy
of this test varies, it should ideally be used in conjunction with heart-rate methods.

The rating of perceived exertion (RPE)

This method, originally developed by psychologist Gunmar Borg in 1979, enables exercisers to verbally
evaluate their efforts on a scale of 6 to 20 (see table below). When multiplied by 10 the rating correlates fairly
accurately with heart rate, thus a rating of 15 (hard) would correspond with a heart rate of 150 bpm.

In 1986 the American College of Sports Medicine released a revised rating of perceived exertion evaluating effort
on a scale of 1-10; although it does not correlate to heart rate, this RPE scale has the advantage of being more
“descriptive”.

These subjective methods of monitoring exertion are recommended for use during sub-maximal fitness tests to
encourage clients to assess their own level of exertion and assist the tester in identifying signs of stress. Preferred
exertion is usually between 12 and 14 on the Borg scale.

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Calculate: HWR = height/ 3√weight

If HWR is equal to or less than 38.25 then ectomorphy = 0.1

If HWR is less than 40.75 but greater than 38.25 then ectomorphy = 0.463 HWR – 17.63

If HWR is greater than or equal to 40.75 then ectomorphy = 0.732 HWR – 28.58

Round off the answers for each of the somatotype calculations to the nearest 0.5. Plot these values in order of
meso – ecto – endomorphic order, e.g. 5-2-6.

To describe the somatotype from the representative values look at the highest two values of the three.

The second highest somatotype is mentioned first and then the highest when describing the somatotype.

For example: 7-5-2

7: represents mesomorphic component

5: represents ectomorphic component

2: represents endomorphic component

The highest value: mesomorphic component – 7

The second highest value: ectomorphic component – 5

The somatotype description is: ectomorphic – mesomorph (tall and muscular)

2.5.6 Waist to Hip Ratio

This method uses the waist and hip measurement sites to work out the waist to hip ratio.

Waist measurement is done over the smallest part of the waist.

Hip measurement is done over the largest part of the hip/gluteal area.

Waist to Hip Ratio: = Waist (cm)

Hips (cm)

Example: = 65cm
103cm

= 0.63 (below 0.80, therefore a healthy Waist to Hip Ratio)

Females should have a ratio no higher than 0.80, while males should have a ratio no higher than 0.95.
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Figure 2.1 Waist circumference Figure 2.2 Hip circumference

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Dyspnea scale

This subjective test monitors exercise according to respiration effort, enabling participants to rate themselves
with the assistance of the trainer on a scale of 1 to 4.

1 Mild: noticeable to the exerciser but not to the observer

2 Some difficulty: noticeable to the observer
3 Moderate difficulty: exerciser can still continue
4 Severe difficulty: exerciser cannot continue

Clients exercising at levels 3 and 4 should reduce exercise intensity.

The MET system

One MET (metabolic equivalent) is defined as the amount of oxygen required per minute under quiet resting
conditions (resting VO2), this is assumed to be equal to 3, 5 ml O2. kg-1. min-1.

A MET is therefore defined as the resting metabolic rate expressed in oxygen uptake or RMR expressed in
energy expenditure that is assumed to be 0, 0175 kcal.kg-1. min-1.

If we say a physical activity has an equivalent of 6 MET’s, we mean that its energy demand is six times that
required at rest.

i.e. 6 x 3, 5 = 21, 0 ml O2.kg-1. min-1, or

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6 x 0, 0175 = 0,105 kcal E.kg-1.min-1. Or 0.441 kJ E.kg-1.min-1. (1kcal = 4,2kJ)

The MET is particularly useful since it accounts for differences in body mass without requiring special
calculations.

Example: Participants A and B both exercise at 8 MET’s:

A weighs 60 kg and B weighs 70 kg. Calculate the energy expenditure per minute.

Weight in kg O2 Uptake E. Expenditure

A 60 8 x 3,5 x 60 = 1680 ml 8 x 0,0175 x 60 = 8,4 kcal min-1

0r = 1, 68 -1 35.28 kJ. min-1

B 70 8 x 3,5 x 70 = 1960 ml 8 x 0,0175 x 70 = 9,8 kcal min-1

= 1, 96 -1

2.5.4 Body composition

Body composition tests assess what the body is made up of as well as the risk of disease. The protocols of
tests that assess body composition are described below:

 Body mass index

 Body fat percentage
 Somatotype
 Ideal body mass
 Waist-to-hip ratio

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Body mass index

Body mass index (BMI) indicates body mass relevant to height. This is a controversial method of assessment
as weight in kilograms does not distinguish between adipose tissue (fat), bone or muscle. This leaves room
for misinterpreting the results in instances where additional muscle mass can easily place the body BMI value
in an obese category (thinking the additional weight is due to fat). BMI is more accurate for individuals with
low muscle mass.
Calculation: BMI = weight (kg) / height2 (m)

Body mass testing protocol

Equipment: scale

Assessor(s): one required and optional data recorder/assistant

Protocol: client wears minimal clothing with shoes removed, feet positioned on centre of scale with weight
equally distributed between both feet. Reading is recorded to the nearest 0.5 kg.

Stature (height) testing protocol

Equipment: Stadiometer

Assessor(s): one required and optional data recorder/assistant

Protocol: shoes removed, client stands upright with head in Frankfort plane (bottom of eye socket lines up
with top notch of the ear). Before taking reading instruct the client to take a deep breath and hold it while
measurement is taken (to nearest mm).

Body fat percentage

Body fat percentage can be assessed by any of the following methods:

 Bioelectrical impedance
 Three skinfolds
 Six skinfolds
Bio-electrical impedance

This method is based on the principle that the electrical conductivity of fat-free mass exceeds that of fat mass.
This involves the use of a small portable machine and electrodes that are placed on the skin. An electrical current
is passed through the body and a fat percentage is displayed on the instrument.

Skinfold assessment method of subcutaneous body fat

The measurement of skinfolds involves measuring the thickness of skinfolds at specific sites on the body. This
test is based on the assumption that approximately 50 percent of total body fat lies directly under the skin.
There are numerous measurement sites and formulae used for calculating % body fat (using anywhere from
3 to 7 skinfolds); the most accurate being the measurement of 6 skinfolds.

Although the 3 and 6 skinfold tests are explained below, the 6 skinfold method must be learned for the
purposes of this course.
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6 skinfold test (Yuhasz Body Fat Formula for Males and Females)
Yuhasz, M.S.: Physical Fitness Manual, London Ontario,University of Western Ontario, (1974)

The 6 skinfold protocol by Yuhasz (1974) includes the following skinfold sites: (suprailium, thigh, triceps,
abdominal, subscapular)..The gender specific calculations:
6 Skinfold Calculation for males: Sum of the six skinfoldss(6 SF) xx (0.1051 + 2.580)
6 Skinfold Calculation for females: Sum of the six skinfolds (6 SF)xx (0.1548 + 3.585)

The recommended percentage of body fat required for health – 12 to 17% for males and 19 to 24% for
females.

3 skinfold test
This method uses the measurement sites and tables developed by Jackson and Pollock (1985). Their
equations are based on the sum of the skinfold measurements at 3 sites; the sites are different for men
and women (APPENDIX IX (a) and (b) on page 45 and 46):

Women
 Suprailium
Take two readings of each skinfold site. When there is a greater difference
 Thigh than 10% between the two readings a third reading is required:
 Triceps Ifftwo readings are taken at a skinfold site: the average of the two readings
is used to represent the skinfold site.
Men If three readings are taken at a skinfold site: the mean of the three
readings must be used to represent the skinfold site.
 Abdomen Once the average or mean values for each of the 6 skinfold sites are
 Thigh calculated; add the six values together and slot the values into the gender
 Chest specific body fat percentage calculations and compare results to norms.
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As a general rule, skinfolds are taken on the dominant (usually the right hand side) of the body. Having arrived at
an estimated body fat percentage, it is possible to calculate an individual’s ideal body mass based on a pre-
conceived “ideal” lean body mass.

Table 2.3 Skinfold measurement sites

Suprailium Measurement site for women for

the 3 skinfold test
A diagonal fold above the crest
of the ilium at the spot where
an imaginary line would come
down from the anterior axillary
line (some prefer the measure
to be taken more laterally at
the mid axillary line – as
illustrated in the practical
manual)

Thigh Measurement site for women for

the 3 skinfold test
A vertical skinfold midway
between the hip and the knee
joint (anterior)

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Triceps Measurement site for women for

the 3 skinfold test
A vertical skinfold taken
halfway between the acromial
and olecranon processes at the
midline of the upper arm
(posterior)

Abdomen Measurement site for men for the

3 skinfold test
A vertical skinfold taken 2cm
lateral to the umbilicus.

Calf Measurement site for men for the

3 skinfold test
A medial fold taken at the
biggest part of the calf muscle
on the medial side of the leg

Chest Measurement site for men for the

3 skinfold test
A diagonal skinfold, halfway
between the anterior axillary
line (crease of underarm) and
nipple. As a general rule,
skinfolds are taken on the
dominant (usually the right
hand side) of the body.

Subscapular Measurement site for men for the

3 skinfold test
A diagonal fold taken just
below the middle of the lower
edge of the shoulder blade
(scapula)
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Both the 6 and 3 skinfold methods should follow the below procedure:

 Identify the anatomical location of the skinfold

 Take measurements on the right side of the body

 Grasp the skinfold firmly with the thumb and index finger of the left hand

 Hold the callipers perpendicular to the site; place the pads of the callipers approximately 1
cm below the thumb and forefinger

 Read the dial on the callipers to the nearest 0, 5 mm one or two seconds after releasing the
trigger

 Take a minimum of two measurements at each site, with a minimum of 15 seconds between
measurements to allow the fat to return to normal thickness

 If the two measurements vary by more than one millimetre, measure the skinfold again

 Do not measure skinfolds after exercise as the transfer of fluid to the skin could result in
overestimation

It is important to understand that muscle weight can increase even when exercise participation is limited to
aerobic activity. Body composition should be assessed periodically throughout an exercise program. This can
provide motivating information, especially when fat weight loss appears to have plateaued. It is important to
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use the same equation for each re-assessment.

Calculating ideal body mass

Clients embarking on a weight loss programme will want to be given a goal weight. This should be based on
the recommended percentage of body fat required for health – 12 to 17% for males and 19 to 24% for
females. Goal weight can be calculated in the following manner
In the example given below the goal weight (ideal body mass) is based on 20% body fat.

 Calculate the total of three skinfolds and use the appropriate column in the tables (Appendix
I on page 16 and 17), based on age and sex, to obtain predicted relative body fat
percentage
 Subtract this body fat percentage from 100 to obtain the lean body mass

 Calculate ideal lean body mass at 80% for women (based on 20% body fat) OR 85% for
men (15% body fat)

FORMULA:

Lean body mass X present body mass

Ideal lean mass

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Example:

Female subject in 28 to 32 age group

Present body mass (weight) = 75 kg

Predicted relative body fat = 29, 8%

Present lean body mass = 70, 2%

Ideal lean body mass = 80%

Calculation:

Ideal mass 70, 2 x 75 = 65, 8 kg

80

2.5.5 Classification of Body Types (Somatotypes):

There are three categories of somatotype: endomorphic, mesomorphic and ectomorphic. Each of these
components represents a different composite of the human body. See description of these categories below:

Endomorph:
 Rounded
 High percentage body fat; large amount of fat on the body, upper arms and thighs
 Wide hips and narrow shoulders (pear shaped)
 Slim wrists and ankles
Ectomorph:
 Slim
 Low percentage body fat
 Narrow shoulders, hips and chest
 Thin face, high forehead
 Thin legs and arms
Mesomorph:
 Muscular body; strong forearms and thighs
 Low percentage body fat
 Broad shoulders and relatively narrow hips
The Health-Carter (2002) anthropometric somatotype methodology is explained below; ten anthropometric
measurements are required to calculate somatotype:

 Body mass (weight)

 Stature (height)
 4 skinfolds
 2 girths
 2 joint breadths

Body mass (weight)

Equipment: scale

Assessor(s): one required and optional data recorder/assistant

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Protocol: client wears minimal clothing with shoes removed, feet positioned on centre of scale with weight equally
distributed between both feet. Reading is recorded to nearest 0.5 kg.

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Stature (height)

Equipment: stadiometer

Assessor(s): one required and optional data recorder/assistant

Protocol: shoes removed, client stands upright with head in Frankfort plane (bottom of eye socket lines up with
top notch of the ear). Before taking reading instruct the client to take a deep breath and hold it while measurement
is taken (to nearest mm).

Four skinfolds

The triceps, subscapular, supraspinale and medial calf are all assessed in a similar manner to that explained
above in the skinfold methods. The only difference is that the supraspinale skinfold is still taken in line with
the anterior axillary line, but at the level of the lateral superior crest of the ilium.

Two girths

The two girths include the flexed upper arm and the calf girth. The flexed upper arm is taken at the point of
the largest circumference when the right shoulder is flexed at 90 degrees and the elbow flexed to 45 degrees.
The weighted calf girth is taken at the point of the largest circumference when standing in the fundamental
position. The reading is taken to the nearest mm.

Two breadths

The two breadths include the biepicondyler breadths of the femur and the humerus. The biepicondyler breadth
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is assessed positioning the calliper heads on the medial and lateral medial and lateral epicondyles of the
humerus when the right shoulder and elbow are flexed to 90 degrees. The biepicondyler breadth is assessed
positioning the calliper heads on the medial and lateral medial and lateral epicondyles of the humerus when
the right knee is positioned at 90 degrees.

Enter the above mentioned assessment data in each of the following calculations to calculate a single digit
representative value for each of the somatotypes.

Endomorphic component

Height corrected endomorphy:

-0.7182 + 0.1451(x) – 0.00068(x)2 + 0.0000014(x)ᶟ

x = (add the skinfolds: triceps, supraspinale, and subscapular) multiply by 170.18 / height (cm)

Mesomorphic component

Mesomorph=

0.858 x humerus breadth + 0.601 x femur breadth + 0.188 x corrected arm girth + 0.161 x corrected calf
girth – height (0.131) + 4.5

Corrected arm girth (flexed arm circumference - triceps skinfold / 10)

Corrected calf girth (calf girth - calf skinfold / 10)

Ectomorphic component

There are three equations used to calculate ectomorphy relative to height-weight ratio (HWR):

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Calculate: HWR = height/ 3√weight

If HWR is equal to or less than 38.25 then ectomorphy = 0.1

If HWR is less than 40.75 but greater than 38.25 then ectomorphy = 0.463 HWR – 17.63

If HWR is greater than or equal to 40.75 then ectomorphy = 0.732 HWR – 28.58

Round off the answers for each of the somatotype calculations to the nearest 0.5. Plot these values in order of
meso – ecto – endomorphic order, e.g. 5-2-6.

To describe the somatotype from the representative values look at the highest two values of the three.

The second highest somatotype is mentioned first and then the highest when describing the somatotype.

For example: 7-5-2

7: represents mesomorphic component

5: represents ectomorphic component

2: represents endomorphic component

The highest value: mesomorphic component – 7

The second highest value: ectomorphic component – 5

The somatotype description is: ectomorphic – mesomorph (tall and muscular)

2.5.6 Waist to Hip Ratio

This method uses the waist and hip measurement sites to work out the waist to hip ratio.

Waist measurement is done over the smallest part of the waist.

Hip measurement is done over the largest part of the hip/gluteal area.

Waist to Hip Ratio: = Waist (cm)

Hips (cm)

Example: = 65cm
103cm

= 0.63 (below 0.80, therefore a healthy Waist to Hip Ratio)

Females should have a ratio no higher than 0.80, while males should have a ratio no higher than 0.95.
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Figure 2.1 Waist circumference Figure 2.2 Hip circumference

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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 16
CHAPTER 2:RESTING VALUES AND BODY COMPOSITION

ANNEXURE I (a): PERCENTAGE FAT ESTIMATE FOR WOMEN

PERCENTAGE FAT ESTIMATE FOR WOMEN

SUM OF TRICEPS, SUPRAILIUM, AND THIGH SKINFOLDS (mm)
Age
Sum of Groups Over
23-27 28-32 33-37 38-42 43-47 48-52 53-57
skinfolds under 57
years years years years years years years
(mm) 22 years
years
23-25 9,7 9,9 10,2 10,4 10,7 10,9 11,2 11,4 11,7
26-28 11 11,2 11,5 11,7 12 12,3 12,5 12,7 13
29-31 12,3 12,5 12,8 13 13,3 13,5 13,8 14 14,3
32-34 13,6 13,8 14 14,3 14,5 14,8 15 15,3 15,5
35-37 14,8 15,0 15,3 15,5 15,8 16 16,3 16,5 16,8
38-40 16 16,3 16,5 16,7 17 17,2 17,5 17,7 18
41-43 17,2 17,4 17,7 17,9 18,2 18,4 18,7 18,9 19,2
44-46 18,3 18,6 18,8 19,1 19,3 19,6 19,8 20,1 20,3
47-49 19,5 19,7 20 20,2 20,5 20,7 21 21,2 21,5
50-52 20,6 20,8 21,1 21,3 21,6 21,8 22,1 22,3 22,6
53-55 21,7 21,9 22,1 22,4 22,6 22,9 23,1 23,4 23,6
56-58 22,7 23,0 23,2 23,4 23,7 23,9 24,2 24,4 24,7
59-61 23,7 24,0 24,2 24,5 24,7 25,0 25,2 25,5 25,7
62-64 24,7 25,0 25,2 25,5 25,7 26,0 26,7 26,4 26,7
65-67 25,7 25,9 26,2 26,4 26,7 26,9 27,2 27,4 27,7
68-70 26,6 26,9 27,1 27,4 27,6 27,9 28,1 28,4 28,6
71-73 27,5 27,8 28,0 28,3 28,5 28,8 29,0 29,3 29,5
74-76 28,4 28,7 28,9 29,2 29,4 29,7 29,9 30,2 30,4
77-79 29,3 29,5 29,8 30 30,3 30,5 30,8 31 31,3
80-82 30,10 30,4 30,50 30,90 31,10 31,40 31,60 31,90 32,10
83-85 30,90 31,20 31,40 31,70 31,90 32,20 32,40 32,70 32,90
86-88 31,70 32,00 32,20 32,50 32,70 32,90 33,20 33,40 33,70
89-91 32,50 32,70 33,00 33,20 33,50 33,70 33,90 34,20 34,40
92-94 33,20 33,40 33,70 33,90 34,20 34,40 34,70 34,90 35,20
95-97 33,90 34,10 34,40 34,60 34,90 35,10 35,40 35,60 35,90
98-100 34,60 34,80 35,10 35,30 35,50 35,80 36,00 36,30 36,50
101-103 35,30 35,40 35,70 35,90 36,20 36,40 36,70 36,90 37,20
104-106 35,8 36,10 36,3 36,6 36,8 37,1 37,3 37,5 37,8
107-109 36,4 36,7 36,9 37,1 37,4 37,6 37,9 38,1 38,4
110-112 37,0 37,2 37,5 37,7 38,0 38,2 38,5 38,7 38,9
113-115 37,5 37,8 38,0 38,2 38,5 38,7 39,0 39,2 39,5
116-118 38,0 38,3 38,5 38,8 39,0 39,3 39,5 39,7 40,0
119-121 38,5 38,7 39,0 39,2 39,5 39,7 40,0 40,2 40,5
122-124 39,0 39,2 39,4 39,7 39,9 40,2 40,4 40,7 40,9
125-127 39,4 39,6 39,9 40,1 40,4 40,6 40,9 41,1 41,4
128-130 39,8 40,0 40,3 40,5 40,8 41,0 41,3 41,5 41,8

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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 177
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ANNEXURE I (b): PERCENTAGE FAT ESTIMATE FOR WOMEN

PERCENTAGE FAT ESTIMATE FOR MEN

SUM OF TRICEPS, SUPRAILIUM, AND THIGH SKINFOLDS (mm)
Age
Sum of Groups Over
23-27 28-32 33-37 38-42 43-47 48-52 53-57
skinfolds under 57
years years years years years years years
(mm) 22 years
years
8-10 1,3 1,8 2,3 2,9 3,4 3,9 4,5 5 5,5
11-13 2,2 2,8 3,3 3,9 4,4 4,9 5,5 60 6,5
14-16 3,2 3,8 4,3 4,8 5,4 5,9 6,4 7 7,5
17-19 4,2 4,7 5,3 5,8 6,3 6,9 7,4 8 8,5
20-22 5,1 5,7 6,2 6,8 7,3 7,9 8,4 8,9 9,5
23-25 6,1 6,6 7,2 7,7 8,3 8,8 9,4 9,9 10,5
26-28 7,0 7,6 8,1 8,7 9,2 9,8 10,3 10,9 11,4
29-31 8 8,5 9,1 9,6 10,2 10,7 11,3 11,8 12,4
32-34 8,9 9,4 10 10,5 11,1 11,6 12,2 12,8 13,3
35-37 9,8 10,4 10,9 11,5 12,0 12,6 13,1 13,7 14,3
38-40 10,7 11,3 11,8 12,4 12,9 13,5 14,1 14,6 15,2
41-43 11,6 12,2 12,7 13,3 13,8 14,4 15,0 15,5 16,1
44-46 12,5 13,1 13,6 14,2 14,7 15,3 15,9 16,4 17,0
47-49 13,4 13,9 14,5 15,1 15,6 16,2 16,8 17,3 17,9
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50-52 14,3 14,8 15,4 15,9 16,5 17,1 17,6 18,2 18,8
53-55 15,1 15,7 16,2 16,8 17,4 17,9 18,5 19,1 19,7
56-58 16,0 16,5 17,1 17,7 18,2 18,8 19,4 20,0 20,5
59-61 16,9 17,4 17,9 18,5 19,1 19,7 20,2 20,8 21,4
62-64 17,6 18,2 18,8 19,4 19,9 20,5 21,1 21,7 22,2
65-67 18,50 19 19,60 20,20 20,80 21,30 21,90 22,50 23,10
68-70 19,30 19,90 20,40 21,00 21,60 22,20 22,70 23,30 23,90
71-73 20,10 20,70 21,20 21,80 22,40 23,00 23,60 24,10 24,70
74-76 20,90 21,50 22,00 22,60 23,20 23,80 24,40 25,00 25,50
77-79 21,70 22,20 22,80 23,40 24,00 24,60 25,20 25,80 26,30
80-82 22,40 23,00 23,60 24,20 24,80 25,40 25,90 26,50 27,10
83-85 23,20 23,80 24,20 25,00 25,50 25,526,1 26,70 27,30 27,90
86-88 24,00 24,50 25,10 25,70 26,30 26,90 27,50 28,10 28,70
89-91 24,7 25,30 25,9 26,5 27,1 27,6 28,2 28,8 29,4
92-94 25,4 26,0 26,6 27,2 27,8 28,4 29,0 29,6 30,2
94-97 26,1 26,7 27,3 27,9 28,5 29,1 29,7 30,3 30,9
98-100 26,9 27,4 28,0 28,6 29,2 29,8 30,4 31,0 31,6
101-103 27,5 28,1 28,7 29,3 29,9 30,5 31,1 31,7 32,3
104-106 28,2 28,8 29,4 30,0 30,6 31,2 31,8 32,4 33,0
107-109 28,9 29,5 30,1 30,7 31,3 31,9 32,5 33,1 33,7
110-112 29,6 30,2 30,8 31,4 32,0 32,6 33,2 33,8 34,4
113-115 30,2 30,8 31,4 32,0 32,6 33,2 33,8 34,5 35,1
116-118 30,9 31,5 32,1 32,7 33,3 33,9 34,5 35,1 35,7
119-121 31,5 32,1 32,7 33,3 33,9 34,5 35,1 35,7 36,4
122-124 32,1 32,7 33,3 33,9 34,5 35,1 35,8 36,4 37
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125-127 32,7 33,3 33,9 34,5 35,1 35,8 36,4 37 37,6

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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING

CHAPTER 3: INITIAL
PHASE OF EXERCISE
PROGRAMME DESIGN
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The aim of this chapter is to provide the learner with the

knowledge and skills required to plan and develop progressive
fitness training programmes for each of the components of
fitness over a one year period (annual programme).

OBJECTIVES:

→ The learner will be able to:

→ Describe the components of fitness for health and
sports related activities.
→ Define six components of fitness: cardiorespiratory
endurance, muscular strength and endurance,
body composition, flexibility and motor skill.
→ Describe training specifications and the effects on
each component of fitness.
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CHAPTER 3: INITIAL PHASE OF EXERCISE PROGRAMME DESIGN

INTRODUCTION

3.1 INITIAL PHASE OF EXERCISE PROGRAMME DESIGN

In order to develop a suitable exercise programme, the trainer must first study and interpret the client’s assessment
results and compare them to the goals initially set for the client. Based on the assessment results the trainer can
ascertain the client’s strengths and weaknesses and make a decision as to whether the training goals should be
changed or additional ones set, e.g. the assessment results could show that the client lacks range of movement in
the hamstrings and lower back, in which case flexibility exercises for those areas must be included in the exercise
programme.

A programme should focus on improving the client’s weaknesses and maintaining his/her strengths. Each client is
unique with different weaknesses and strengths making it vital for the trainer to know the client’s individual needs
and the training required to improve each component of fitness.

3.2 METHODS FOR DEVELOPING COMPONENTS OF FITNESS

To ensure an exercise programme meets the individual needs of each client it is important that the trainer
understands the principles of the different components of fitness and is able to apply them to individual exercise
programme design.

3.2.1 Muscular Fitness

Muscular fitness incorporates muscular strength, muscular endurance, muscular power and muscular power
endurance. Resistance training (exercise that causes the muscle to contract against an external resistance) aims to
increase and improve muscular fitness.

Resistance training should start and progress from the lowest continuum of resistance training – i.e. muscular
endurance training using light weights at a low intensity with moderate repetitions. Once a good base of muscular
endurance has been developed the client can progress to higher intensity (heavier weight) training such as
hypertrophy and strength training and from there progress to muscular power and muscular power endurance
training.

Methods of developing muscular endurance, hypertrophy, strength, power and power endurance are discussed in
this chapter. Table 3.1 provides a summary of the intensities, repetitions, sets and rest periods that will ensure
improvement of these muscular components.

The intensity of resistance training is prescribed as a percentage of the one repetition maximum (1RM) (for each
exercise (refer to module 2 for testing protocol). Sets and reps together constitute the amount of work done
(volume).

Please refer to the practical manual for examples of muscular fitness/resistance training exercises.
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Table 3.1 Continuum of Muscular Fitness Training

Training Muscular Muscular Muscular Muscular Short-term Medium-term Long-term

goal endurance hypertrophy strength power muscular Muscular power
power power endurance
endurance endurance (sports &
(circuit circuit
training) training)
Load 67 or less 67-85 85 or 75-85 10-25 30-50 100+
(%1RM) more
Goal 12 or 6-12 6 or less 3-5 10-25 30-50 100+
repetitions more
Sets 2-3 3-6 2-6 3-5 3 1-3 1-2

Rest 30 sec or 30 sec-1.5 2-5 min 2-5 min 30-60 sec 1-2 min 1-2 min
less min
Energy Lactate, PC, lactate PC PC PC, lactate PC, lactate, PC, lactate,
System aerobic aerobic aerobic
Fibre type Type I Type I & II Type II Type II Type I & II Type I & II Type I & II

3.2.2 Muscular Endurance

Muscular endurance is the ability to work a muscle repeatedly over a period of time. Dynamic endurance refers
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to the capacity of a muscle to exert force repeatedly over a period of time and can be measured simply by counting
the number of times an exercise can be performed. Static endurance refers to the ability of a muscle to hold a
fixed or static contraction for a period of time and can be measured by timing how long a specific position can be
maintained. e.g. legs raised 15 cm above the floor.

Applying the overload principle, (i.e. exposing the muscle to progressive resistance) and increasing both the intensity
and the duration of the exercise will improve muscular endurance.

Principles characterising muscular endurance training include:

 Moderate resistance
 High repetitions
 3-5 times per week for maximum results
 Contraction is maintained at the same speed as is required for muscular endurance in
performance

Muscular endurance training results in:

 Some hypertrophy (increase in muscle size)

 Increased oxygen supply to the working muscles and removal of waste products

 Increase in the number and size of mitochondria

 Increase in glycogen storage capacity

 Increased lactate capacity (muscles are less easily fatigued)

 Increase in ability to apply strength and sustain it

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 Increased vascularity, i.e. improved blood supply and oxygen delivery to the trained muscles

 Increased enzymes that improve the oxidative capacity of the myofibrils, i.e. aerobic capacity

 Enhanced glycogen storage provides additional fuel thus delaying fatigue

3.2.3 Muscular Strength

Muscular strength refers to the capacity of a muscle to exert maximal force against resistance.

Strength exercises are included in an exercise programme to build and maintain muscular strength. The result of
strength training is some enlargement of the muscle fibres (hypertrophy) and a relative increase in the ability to
apply force.

Exercises for strength require taxing a muscle to its limit. The most effective way of increasing strength is by
applying the overload principle. Strength training is categorised by high intensity, low repetition and controlled
speed work, ensuring consistent application of force throughout the movement.

Principles of strength training include:

→ High resistance

 The number of repetitions should be relatively low to prevent over-stressing muscles and
joints

 Movements should be controlled and deliberate to ensure a consistent application of force

throughout the movement

 Good posture and body mechanics are extremely important

 Muscles and supporting structures should be given time to recover adequately between
workouts (it is usually recommended that heavy strength training should not be performed
more than 3 times a week)

The degree of difficulty in muscle-strengthening exercises can be increased by:

 increasing resistance (weight)
 increasing repetitions
 increasing number of sets
 decreasing rest periods between sets

The greatest increase in strength is achieved by increasing the resistance while keeping the other variables constant.
It is important to remember that strength training is specific, i.e. arm exercises only strengthen arms, etc. Training
adaptations will gradually decline unless a regular “maintenance” programme is followed. This is known as the
reversibility principle.

Results of strength training:

 Enlargement of muscle fibres (hypertrophy), i.e. increased size or diameter of muscle cells as
a result of increases in the contractile proteins in the exercising muscle(s) - particularly of fast
twitch muscle fibres. Generally women do not show muscular hypertrophy to the same extent
as men because of their lower testosterone levels (male hormone), but their strength will still
increase substantially in response to a progressive strength training programme.

 Increased ability to apply force during exercise

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 Increased blood pressure

 Modest increase in heart rate

 Small increase in cardiac output

 If tension exceeds 50% of maximum, skeletal muscle blood flow will be less than resting level

 Improved anaerobic capacity in the trained muscles

 Improvement in function of the fast-twitch motor units.

Various methods can be used to improve or maintain muscle strength:

 Isometric (or static) exercises, i.e. the length of the muscle does not change during the
exercise, e.g. pushing one hand against the other. This is not a particularly successful method
for improving strength and is therefore not recommended as part of the strength-training
component of a programme.

 Isotonic (or dynamic) exercises, i.e. the limb or body part is moved during the exercise,
e.g. push-ups, sit-ups, pull-ups, etc.

3.2.4 Muscular Power

Muscular power is the ability to apply force against resistance at maximal velocity. It is the product of
strength and speed combined, e.g. the ability to exert a maximum force in the shortest possible time (jumping,
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throwing). By increasing either strength or speed one can increase muscular power.

Although speed and strength work together to create power one should be careful of lifting and lowering weights at
high speed. This is less productive in strength training and there is a high risk of injury to muscle tissue. High
power efforts involve rapid movement so there is little kinaesthetic feedback, posture and body alignment can suffer
as a result. Good muscle endurance and a strength training background are required to prepare the body for power
exercises and guard against injury.

If speed is required for a particular sport it is best to practice the specific movements of the sport at fast speed in
order to activate the neuromuscular pattern involved in the skill.

3.2.5 Speed

Speed is not a component of physical fitness but it is important for learners to understand speed in relation to
performance as well as the part the different components of fitness play in the development of speed. Speed is the
ability to perform a particular movement rapidly. It has been defined as strength guided by skill. To
increase speed one should increase strength and skill.
Research has shown that there is an optimum speed of movement for any given work and that any change in speed
away from the optimum results in a decrease in efficiency.

3.2.6 Muscular Power Endurance

Muscular power endurance refers to the ability of muscles to execute an explosive movement repeatedly against low
to moderate resistance at high velocity. Muscular power and power endurance training have traditionally been
incorporated in sport specific training programmes, but contemporary training methods have taken on a more
functional and explosive approach with great results. Power and power endurance training is on the upper limit of
the training continuum and should therefore be incorporated into a training programme only once a sound base of

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muscular endurance and strength has been built. This progressive approach will lead to higher levels of achievement
over time with a lower risk of injury.

Sharkey and Gaskill (2006) refer to three sub-categories of muscular power endurance training - short, medium and
long term muscular power endurance. Short-term power endurance is mostly developed in the gymnasium while
medium-term and long-term power endurance incorporates sport specific drills for athletes and explosive compound
exercises (squat jumps, uphill running, etc.) for the general population. Functional training equipment such as
medicine balls, bungee cords, weighted vests, parachutes, etc. is used in this type of training.

When developing muscular power endurance it is important to retain muscular strength. In order to maintain
strength while focusing on power the first set in a power endurance programme should focus on strength training
and the rest on power training. Alternatively focus on strength training once a week and power exercises for the rest
of the week.

The same is true when the focus is on developing strength - power training could also be incorporated in the first set
or once a week.

Muscular response to resistance training

During exercise: Acute muscle soreness, i.e. “the burn” that occurs during or immediately following exercise may
be caused by:
 Ischaemia (lack of oxygen to the muscle)
 Build-up of lactic acid causing tissues to swell and set up pain reactors

Delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS):

(24 – 48 hours after exercise)

For many years it was thought that lactic acid build-up was the cause of DOMS. Scientists now discount this theory
since lactate (salt form of lactic acid) is metabolised quickly after exercise (after an hour of training depending on the
duration and intensity of the training session). It is mentioned here only because it was common belief and some
people still adhere to this rather “old fashioned” theory.

More likely theories are:

 Muscle spasm – may shut down blood supply and activate pain reactors

 Damage to the skeletal muscle and connective tissue (micro trauma), followed by an
inflammation-induced increase in fluid in the muscle, activating pain receptors.

 Microscopic tears in the muscle fibres

 Connective tissue damage causing liberation of hydroxyproline

 D.O.M.S. is associated particularly with eccentric contraction

3.2.7 Motor Skill Performance

Complex exercises (such as those mentioned for muscular power endurance training) require an advanced level of
motor skill performance. Motor skill performance is also referred to as basic athletic ability and smooth co-ordinated
muscular movement which is the result of the harmonious function of nerve and muscle. Coordination can be
improved with exercise. This means that when improvements occur in muscular power there is direct improvement
in the motor neurons harmonious activation of the muscles involved in complex movement; movement takes place
flawlessly, in the correct order and repeatedly at high speed without fatigue.
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3.2.8 Flexibility

Flexibility is the ability to use a muscle throughout its full range of motion and to move all joints freely and
easily. Flexibility allows greater mobility and therefore more graceful and efficient movement because no energy is
wasted on unnecessary movements. Inflexible joints and muscles limit movement while good joint mobility helps
prevent muscle injury and soreness as well as bone fracture. Inflexibility of the back and hamstrings affects posture
while flexibility of the large muscles of the hamstrings can contribute to the relief and prevention of backache.
Specific flexibility training elongates the muscles and connective tissue slightly, thus increasing the range of motion.

Muscle elasticity decreases with age so flexibility exercises are particularly important for elderly clients to prevent,
or at least postpone, decreased mobility. It will be more difficult for an older person to achieve the same degree of
flexibility as a younger person, however, flexibility can be improved at any age by applying the principle of
progressive overload, i.e. exercising more frequently, attempting to increase the stretch (intensity), increasing the
duration of the flexibility training and/or the length of time one holds the stretch – although research has shown that
there is little benefit to be achieved by holding a stretch for longer than 15 to 30 seconds. When adaptation takes
place further overload can be applied.
It is important to remember that flexibility is also specific to each joint and muscle, i.e. flexibility of the ankle
does not guarantee flexibility of the shoulder or hip joints.

With flexibility exercises the muscle must be stretched further than its natural length and the exercises should
be static, i.e. no jerky movements. Jerky stretching (ballistic movements) can cause a degree of damage to the
muscles ranging from stiffness to permanent scar tissue that will impair the elasticity of the muscle. Stretching
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exercises should be slow and controlled so that the tension in the muscle is released gradually and the intensity of
the stretch must be such that the client is comfortable. The stretch should be held for approximately 15 seconds,
released and repeated for one or more sets.

The main purpose of stretching before exercise is to release tension in the muscles and prepare the body for
the more strenuous part of the exercise session.
Stretching exercises are done both at the beginning and end of an exercise session. At the start of the
programme dynamic stretches are included in the warm-up to activate neural pathways to ensure greater
efficiency of movement in the main-set of the programme.

Dynamic stretches are stretches performed while moving; they involve multi joint dynamic movements such as body
weight walking lunges, spider man push-ups, etc. and may also involve the use of light weights.

Static stretches are also included as part of the warm-up to prepare muscles that lack range of movement and to
assist in executing exercises with proper technique.

Refer to the practical manual for examples of dynamic and static stretching.

Stretching to improve flexibility is best done at the end of the exercise session when muscles are warm.
Flexibility at both the beginning and end of the session should focus on the muscles that are used in the training
session.

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Principles characterising flexibility training include:

 Adequate warm-up designed to increase blood flow to the muscles before any attempt to
stretch

 No ballistic (bouncing or jerking) movement that could cause injury to connective tissue and
stimulate the stretch reflex

 Never try to stretch a muscle/muscle group beyond its normal range of motion (i.e. individual
potential)

 Stretch gently and only to the point where muscle tension may be felt – not to the point of
pain

 Never use excessive resistance – a stretch should not be “forced”

 Allow for individual differences in flexibility and range of motion

Results of flexibility training

 Freedom of movement helps prevent injury and degenerative joint disease

 Increased ability to use strength through an increased range of motion

3.2.9 Cardio-respiratory Endurance

Cardio-respiratory endurance training involves rhythmic, large muscle mass exercises that tax the cardiac, respiratory
and vascular systems. These are the most important systems in the development of physical fitness.

For many years cardiovascular training involving low intensity, long duration exercises was recommended for weight
loss, and while this recommendation can certainly be supported for some people (e.g. very overweight or obese
clients), it is the total amount of work done that mainly influences weight loss. For any given duration more
kilojoules will be burnt at a higher intensity of work, but remember, the higher the intensity the higher the risk of
injury.

Each person should work at an intensity level appropriate for his/her health status, fitness level and exercise goals.
Exercising within an appropriate intensity range will improve the relevant physical fitness component and reduce the
likelihood of injury. Exercising at too low an intensity will have little or no effect, while exercising at too high an
intensity may result in fatigue and muscle damage. Monitoring exercise intensity is therefore essential in ensuring an
exercise programme is safe and effective.

Individual aerobic potential is limited by VO2 max. VO2 max declines gradually with age, but it is believed that regular
exercise delays this decline. Although a person’s VO2 max is primarily genetically determined, it may be increased by
training (10-15%).

Increases in VO2 max depend on:

 genetics
 body weight
 lifestyle habits (e.g. smoking)
 Intensity, duration and frequency of exercise

Intensity of cardiovascular training is prescribed relative to a percentage of maximal heart rate, this is due to the
linear relationship between oxygen consumption, heart rate and workload. Research shows that no significant
training response occurs when exercising at less than 50% of VO2 max. Heart rate should never go beyond 180 –
185 bpm because this will lower blood pressure. Beyond this rate the heart works inefficiently, affecting the stroke
volume and consequently the cardiac output.
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Table 3.2 summarises target zones indicating the improvements that will occur at each heart rate zone. These zones
are based on the cardio-respiratory training intensities of 40-80% of VO2 max.

Table 3.2 Cardiovascular Training Target Heart Rate Zones

TRAINING ZONE % MHR PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS

1. Moderate/Health 55-70  Increased fatty acid metabolism

 Increased mitochondria or capillary density

2. Fitness 70-80  Increased type 1 fibre recruitment

 Increased aerobic glycolysis
 Increased aerobic enzymes
 Improved oxygen transport

3. Anaerobic threshold 80-90  Improved type IIa fibre recruitment

 Increased anaerobic threshold
 Improved tolerance and clearance of
lactate
 Improved anaerobic glycolysis

4. Anaerobic 90-100  Improved type IIb fibre recruitment

 Increased anaerobic threshold
 Improved oxygen transport
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Target Heart Rate:

Maximal heart rate (MHR) is determined by a maximal functional capacity test on a cycle ergometer or treadmill or
by age-predicted heart rate tables using the formula 220-age (based on the assumption that metabolic rate declines
with age). The formula for calculating target heart rate using the maximal heart rate method is:

Example: Where age is 20 years and THR is 80% of maximal heart rate the calculation is:

MHR = 220-20 = 200

THR = 200 x 80% = 160

Some texts differentiate according to gender and estimate the male MHR using the formula 205 minus one-half age
(205 – ½ age), while the formula for women remains 220 – age.

It has been established that calculations based on a percentage of heart rate reserve (Karvonen Formula)
approximate the percentage of maximal oxygen uptake during exercise and that using a percentage of maximal
heart rate (HR max) reflects a workload of approximately 15% lower.

The heart rate reserve method of calculating THR is similar to the HR max method, except that it takes into account
individual resting heart rate (RHR).

The formula is as follows:

THR = % (MHR – RHR) + RHR x 1.15

Therefore the THR calculation for a person aged 20 with RHR of 70 bpm exercising at 80% of HR reserve is as
follows:

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MHR (200) – RHR (70) = 130

THR = (80% x 130) + 70

= 104 + 70

= 174 bpm

Obviously a range of intensities must be considered for clients at different levels of fitness. The ACSM recommends 3
to 5 sessions per week for 20 to 60 minutes per session at an intensity of 55/65% MHR or 40/50% to 85% HRR
(heart rate reserve).

The lower values represent the minimal threshold for improving cardiorespiratory fitness, while the higher levels
represent the recommended upper limit of exercise intensity. Remember that the target heart rate ranges are only a
guide, intensity must be appropriate for the individual, taking into account his/her health, fitness status and exercise
experience.

Monitoring heart rate

The Karvonen formula (or the heart rate reserve method) of calculating THR is the most accurate method since it
takes both age and resting heart rate into account. This method can be used by people on medication that affects
heart rate as the relationship between resting heart rate and exercise heart rate is roughly preserved. When using
the maximal heart rate method for people on medication (e.g. beta blockers) it is advisable to set the upper heart
rate limit to no more than 70 – 80% of the maximum and to use supplementary measuring techniques to measure
exercise intensity.
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Karvonen formula: H.R. reserve method

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THR Calculation at 80% of HR Reserve for person age 20 with RHR of 70 bpm.

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The increase in aerobic capacity occurs as a result of overload, adaptation and progression. In the case of cardio-
respiratory endurance this will involve increasing the frequency and duration gradually from (say) 10-20 minutes 3
times per week to 30 to 60 minutes 5 times per week, or variations of this. Introducing hill work or increasing
resistance on a bicycle can increase intensity.

Results of cardio-respiratory endurance training:

 Heart beats slower and pumps more blood per beat (during rest and exercise)

 Body adjusts more easily to physical demands

 Heart rate returns to normal faster after exercise

 Efficient functioning of heart, lungs and blood vessels increases their capacity to deliver
oxygen and nutrients to all the cells of the body and to remove waste such as lactic acid and
hydrogen ions

3.2.10 Body Composition

Body composition refers to the ratio between lean body mass which is metabolically active and contributes to
energy production, and adipose (fat) tissue which does not contribute directly to exercise performance except as
a nutrient for energy production during aerobic exercise. Body fat is further classified into essential body fat and
excess body fat.

Essential body fat refers to the percentage of body fat necessary to maintain health and reproductive function. This
minimum is thought to be 3-6% for men and 8-12% for women. It is possible to maintain a satisfactory lean:fat ratio
throughout life with attention to diet and exercise.

For some years it was thought that low intensity, long duration (aerobic) exercise was the only type of exercise that
would result in fat loss, this theory was based on the fact that fat is metabolised during aerobic exercise. Although
this view is still widely held research has shown that the total work done is the most important factor in fat
loss.

The more work done the greater the increase in total energy expended; this results in a negative energy balance
and ultimately in weight loss. The inclusion of resistance training methods, over and above cardiovascular training,
results in an increase of muscle mass (active cells) and assists in increasing basal metabolic rate (BMR). Thus,
focusing on improving the weaknesses and maintaining the strengths of the client results in increases in physical
activity and total work done and, ultimately, in weight loss.

This principle, which ensures progression along the continuum of muscular resistance and cardiovascular training
using the prescribed intensities, is a scientific approach to resistance training that is more likely to achieve success
than the generalised approach commonly used by unqualified trainers.

RESULTS OF TRAINING:

 Increased ratio lean: fat mass

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Assessment and
Programming 112
CHAPTER 1: FLEXIBILITY, POSTURE, POWER
CHAPTER 2: PERIODISATION OF AN ANNUAL PROGRAMME

Duration: Term 2
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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING
AS

CHAPTER 1:
FLEXIBILITY,
POSTURE, POWER
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This chapter provides an overview of the assessment protocols

for each of the components of fitness.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

 Demonstrate the ability to use evaluation ‘instruments’

and interpret evaluation results.
 Demonstrate the ability to prepare an individual for
exercise testing, i.e. preparation protocol and informed
consent.
 Choose the appropriate tests for an individual.
 Demonstrate the ability to conduct all tests accurately,
following all protocols with appropriate customer care
skills.
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1.1 FLEXIBILITY TESTS

Flexibility tests assess the ability of a joint to move through a full range of motion without incurring any injury.

Flexibility tests are supposed to be done without limbering so extreme care should be taken so that clients do
not injure themselves.

See below testing protocols of the following flexibility tests. Note that each test assesses the flexibility of
different body regions and the assessor should therefore consider including all of these tests to identify
flexibility of all/most regions of the body.

 Standard sit-and-reach test

 Flexibility of the back
 Flexibility of hamstrings
 Hip hyperextension test
 Stretch positions tests

Standard sit-and-reach test

This test measures flexibility of the hamstrings and lower back. To perform the sit-and-reach test you will
need the Acuflex I sit-and-reach flexibility tester, or
you may simply place a yardstick on top of a box
approximately 30.5 cm high (Hayward, 2002).

Research has shown that sit-and-reach tests are

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moderately related to hamstring flexibility, but poorly

related to low back flexibility (Hayward, 2002);
therefore it should only be used to identify individuals
(at the extremes) who may have a higher risk of
muscle injury because of a lack of flexibility or hypermobility in the hamstring muscles.
Method (Hayward, 2002):

 The client sits on the floor with knees extended, legs together and the soles of the feet flat
against the edge of the box (no shoes)

 Instruct the client to reach forward with two hands on top of one another and middle fingers
aligned

 The client then slowly reaches forward as far as possible on top of the box/yard stick and
holds this position momentarily (+/- 2sec)

 The score (cm) is the most distal point on the box contacted by the tips of the middle fingers
of three trials

Table 1.1 Norms for the standard sit-and-reach test for men and women (Adapted from Hayward, 2002):
Scores measured in cm, using a box with zero point set at 23cm

Men
Rank Age
20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69
Excellent >38 >36 >33 >34 >31
Above average 33-38 31-36 27-33 26-34 23-31
Average 28-32 26-35 22-26 22-25 19-22
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Below average 23-27 21-25 17-21 15-21 13-18

Poor <23 <21 <17 <15 <13

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Women
Rank Age
20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69
Excellent >39 >38 >36 >36 >33
Above average 35-39 34-38 32-36 32-36 28-33
Average 31-34 30-33 28-31 27-31 25-27
Below average 26-30 25-29 23-27 23-26 21-24
Poor <26 <25 <23 <23 <21

Back flexibility

Step 1: From a straight sitting position, measure the

distance from chin to floor

Step 2: From prone lying position (hands

clasped behind the back), lift the upper body off
the floor and measure from the centre of the
collar bone to the floor.

Step 3: Divide back arch figure (step 2) by sitting height figure (step 1) and work out as a percentage.

Contra-indications: back problems

Table 1.2 Back flexibility norms

Percentage Rating

60% Excellent
50% Good
40% Moderate
30% or less Fair
20% or less Poor
10% or less Very poor

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Flexibility of hamstrings test

From straight standing position, bend the knees and touch the floor with the hands. Slowly straighten the legs.

Table 1.3 Hamstring flexibility norms

Position of hands and fingers Rating

Fingers leave the floor Poor

Fingers touch the floor Good

Hands rest flat on the floor Excellent

Contra-indications: back problems

Hip hyperextension test

Client lies in a supine position with arms to the side. The pelvis should be taken into a posterior tilt to create a flat
back position. The leg being assessed should be extended. The trainer should gently ease the non-assessed leg
towards the client’s chest. When the illiopsoas becomes taut the knee of the leg being assessed will begin to lift.
Assess the angle at which this happens. The ideal angle is 125 degrees.

Functional flexibility tests

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The following tests indicate the functional range of motion of the shoulder and chest and ankles. The assessment
result is influenced not only by flexibility but by strength to move and hold the body at end of range of motion.

Table 1.4 Stretch positions tests

Description of test Approximate scoring

Keeping the forehead and chest on the floor, lift the straight arms upwards. Measure >20cm = Good
distance from hands to floor.
15cm = Average
Keeping the soles of the feet on the floor, press the knees towards the floor.
Measure the distance from the bottom of the knees to the floor. <15cm = Poor

1.2 POSTURE

Correct alignment refers to correct posture, either when the body is still (static posture) or moving (dynamic
posture). Core stability is provided passively by the spinal column and ligaments and actively by
skeletal muscle and neural control. Correct alignment is maintained by the core muscles that consist of
both superficial and deep muscles.

The superficial muscles consist of the rectus abdominis, external obliques and erector spinae and the deep
muscles of transverse abdominis, multifidus, internal obliques, pelvic floor and diaphragm. When contracted
these muscles create a cylinder of tension called hoop tension.

The thoraco-lumbar fascia is attached to many of the muscles listed above and thus has been found to be
related to back pain, i.e. a weak gluteus maximus muscle with a strong erector spinae creates an imbalance
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that pulls on the fascia and causes pain.

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Standard posture

The ideal postural alignment involves a minimal amount of stress and strain and maximal efficiency of the
body. In the standard posture, the spine presents normal curves and the bones of the lower extremities are
in the ideal alignment for weight bearing. It is also important that the pelvis is in the “neutral” position. The
upper back and chest should be in a position that ensures optimal lung function. It is important to bear in
mind that there are individual variations in body type, size and shape and that the guidelines given are the
“ideal”; it is not expected that any individual should match the standard in every respect.

When assessing standing posture, a plumb line is used as

PLUMBLINE:
reference (a standard against which deviations can be
measured). The feet are used as standard fixed point when
measuring standing posture with a plumb line. The point of A cord with a plumb bob
reference must be at the base of the feet. attached to the bottom to
provide an absolute vertical line.
When posture is viewed from the side (lateral view), the fixed
reference point is slightly in front of the outer maleolus. In
posterior view the point is midway between the heels. The standing posture of your client should be assessed
from four views, including the front, back, right and left side. The ideal plumb alignment is described below:

Front and back view:

 Midway between the heels

 Midway between the lower limbs
 Through the midline of the pelvis, spine, sternum and skull
Ideally the right and left halves of the body should be symmetrical and should exactly counterbalance each other.

Side views:

 Slightly anterior to lateral maleolus

 Slightly anterior to axis of knee joint
 Slightly posterior to axis of hip joint
 Bodies of lumber vertebrae
 Shoulder joint
 Bodies of most cervical vertebrae
 Centre of the ear (external auditory meatus)

Ideally the plumb line should divide the body into front and back sections that are of the same weight. The
front and back halves are not, however, symmetrical.

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Plumb line Side view (A), Posterior view (B)

Derived from: http://cdn2.bigcommerce.com/server400/19bd0/product_images/uploaded_images/plumb-line.jpg

Postural problems

The following are common postural problems that your client may have. Always compare left to right. These
problems must be kept in mind when prescribing an exercise programme. If your client has major postural
deviations he/she needs to be referred to a Biokineticist, physiotherapist or specialist.

Feet/ankles/lower legs:

 Excessive pronation or supination

 High or low arches
 Flat feet
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 Toes in or out
 Hypertrophy or atrophy of calf muscle

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Knees:
 Hyperextended or hyperflexed
 Genu Varum
 Genu Valgum (knock-knees)
 Popliteal folds even
 High, low, frog-eyed or squinting patellae
 Hypertrophy or atrophy of quadriceps
Pelvis:

 Anterior or posterior tilt (ASIS:PSIS)

 Lateral tilt (PSIS/ASIS/iliac crests level)
 Gluteal folds even
Back and abdomen:

 Kyphosis (thoracic)
 Hyperlordosis (lumbar)
 Scoliosis
 Flat back
 Sway back
 Winging scapulae
 Scapulae level
 Hypertrophy or atrophy of muscles
 Protruding abdomen

The table below summarises some of the common observations that you may come across as well as the muscles
which are underactive (need to be strengthened) and overactive (need to be stretched). Always keep in mind that
an overactive muscle does not mean it is necessarily strong, strength tests will need to be performed to determine
whether a muscle is weak and overactive or strong and overactive. A muscle which is underactive and lengthened
is however generally weak.

Observation Overactive Muscles Underactive Muscles

Forward Head Neck Extensors Neck Flexors

Anteriorly Translated Pectoralis Major & Minor, Anterior Rhomboids, Posterior Deltoids &
Shoulders Deltoids Middle Trapezius

Rounded Upper Back Pectoralis Major & Minor, Anterior Thoracic Erector Spinae
Deltoids

Lordosis and Anterior Pelvic Hip Flexors (Psoas Major, Iliacus, Transverse Abdominis, Gluteus
Tilt Rectus Femoris), Quadratus Maximus
Lumborum, Lower Back Erector
Spinae

Flat Lumbar Spine and Transverse Abdominis, Gluteus Hip Flexors (Psoas Major, Iliacus,
Posterior Pelvic Tilt Maximus (not necessarily strong) Rectus Femoris), Quadratus
Lumborum, Lower Back Erector
Spinae

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VISUAL POSTURAL ASSESSMENTS - POSTURAL ASSESSMENT FORM

LATERAL VIEW:

Head
Neutral
Forward

Cervical Spine
Normal extension
Excessive extension
Flat

Thoracic Spine
Normal extension
Excessive extension (kyphosis)
Flat

Lumbar Spine
Normal extension
Excessive extension (lordosis)
Flat

Pelvis
Neutral pelvis
Posterior pelvic tilt
Anterior pelvic tilt
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Ankle Joint
Neutral
Dorsi flexed
Plantar flexed

Knees
Neutral
Flexed
Hyper-extended

FRONT VIEW:

Head
Straight
Lateral flexion to the right
Lateral flexion to the left
Lateral shift to the right
Lateral shift to the left

Shoulders
Normal
Level
High on right side
High on left side

Rib Cage
Normal
Rotated to the right
Rotated to the left
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Pelvis (ASIS & PSIS) Anterior & Posterior Superior lilac Spines)
Normal
Level
High on right side
High on left side
Rotated clockwise
Rotated anti-clockwise

Femur
Straight
Lateral rotation
Medial rotation

Knees
Normal
Knock-kneed – genu valgum
Bow-legged – genu varum

Feet
Pronated (eversion) to the right
Pronated (eversion) to the left
Supinated (inversion) to the right
Supinated (inversion) to the left

BACK VIEW:

Scapula
Normal
Adducted
Abducted
Winging

1.3 MUSCULAR POWER

Muscular power can be assessed by the following two power tests: vertical jump (lower body power) and
medicine ball push (upper body power).

These tests should not be conducted with a beginner as they still need to develop muscular strength and
endurance; both at the lower range of the muscular fitness continuum.

Vertical jump test

This test assesses the muscles that propel the body up (vertically). When selecting lower body power tests,
the movement that is closest to that of the sport in which the client participates, should be the determining
factor in test selection.

The client must dip his/her dominant hand into chalk and position his/her body next to the wall. The client
should then reach his/her dominant hand up against the wall to mark the highest point that the hand can
touch. Once again the client must dip his/her hand into the chalk and now perform a maximal jump to make
a second mark against the wall at the highest point of the jump reaching up with the dominant hand.

The distance between the two marks is measured. The best of three trials should be recorded.

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Medicine ball push

This test measures upper body power; a medicine ball of four or five kilograms is used.

The client positions himself/herself behind a line holding the medicine ball with both hands positioned in front
of the chest. The ‘starting’ line is indicated by a piece of masking tape on the ground. Place a measuring tape
on the floor perpendicular to the masking tape (this is used to measure the distance of displacement of the
medicine ball). The client is instructed to perform a maximal chest throw. The better of two attempts is
recorded.
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PERIODISATION OF
AN ANNUAL
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PROGRAMME
The aim of this chapter is to provide the learner with the
knowledge and skills required to plan and develop progressive
fitness training programmes for each of the components of
fitness over a one year period (annual programme).

OBJECTIVES:

→ The learner will be able to:

→ Plan a periodised exercise programme
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1.1 PERIODISATION OF PROGRAMMES

Bompa, (1983) developed this effective method of programme design. It is discussed briefly below.

The concept of periodisation was developed on the basis that the body can only adapt to a continuous increase in
intensity and duration of work (volume of work) until a certain point. Thereafter the body will start deteriorating and
illness can follow. Generally speaking, this condition is referred to as a state of long term over-training. Periodisation
is a method used to prevent the overtraining syndrome and burnout and ensures progressive improvement over
time.

1.1.1 Signs of Over-training

It must be remembered that the heart, like all muscles, requires energy to function. It is therefore not advisable to
exercise at a high intensity for long periods of time. This is one of the reasons for exercising at a pre-determined
target heart rate. During exercise, heart rate (cardiac output), reaches a level where no further increase will occur;
this indicates that maximum exercise capacity has been reached. After this, exercise can only be continued for a
short time before fatigue sets in. Continuous progressive high intensity training leads to long term over-training
syndrome. At this stage the immune system is compromised and the body is susceptible to viruses.

While everyone catches an occasional virus, frequent colds and flu can be a sign of over-training. Excessive stress
placed on the body over a prolonged period lowers resistance to disease – ill-health is a sign to slow down.

Exercising with, or when recovering from, a virus further stresses the system and may make the illness worse and/or
delay recovery. Cold medications may be an added risk because some medications increase the heart rate, both at
rest and during exercise. Thus the best advice an instructor can give to a client with a cold or flu is to rest. Once
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recovered, the client should start at a reduced intensity and duration and increase the workload gradually.

1.1.2 Overview of Three General Phases of Exercise Programmes

When starting an exercise programme the work level should be fairly low and should increase slowly as the
body adapts to the increased workload. To improve physical fitness, workload must be increased at regular intervals;
this is called the principle of overload. However, it is not necessary to make a general or overall increase in
workload – each exercise and muscle group must be considered separately and allowed to progress
individually. At each level of intensity, adaptation takes place followed by progression as the body becomes capable
of more work.

Broadly speaking an exercise programme should consist of 3 consecutive phases:

 Beginner phase
 Progressive phase
 Maintenance phase that can progress to an advanced phase with more specific exercises

Progress during the first few weeks of exercise is rapid, then a plateau is reached when progress is less apparent.
This plateauing is called retrogression but if the programme is continued progression will resume.

Training adaptations will gradually decline unless a regular maintenance programme is followed. This is known
as the reversibility principle.

The beginner phase (developmental phase)

Exercise stresses the body; it is a breaking down process. It is during rest periods that the body rebuilds
itself, building stronger and bigger structures. It is therefore important that the beginner phase is at an intensity
suited to the beginner’s capabilities. If exercise is too intense, muscles will be sore and unfit clients may even feel
weaker at their next session; this is because the body is still in a process of recovery.
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It is therefore important to encourage clients to listen to their bodies and to avoid over-stress. In the case of a group
exercise class of mixed abilities and fitness levels, clients must be encouraged to work at their own pace and not
attempt to keep up with the fitter, more experienced exercisers.

Beginners on individual resistance training programmes are more easily monitored. The beginning phase can last up
to 4-6 weeks during which time progress will be apparent.

The progressive phase (progression phase)

This is also known as the “slow-progress phase”. During this phase the programme will remain unchanged for 1 to 2
weeks, after which it will be made progressively harder by the application of certain variables.

The maintenance phase (maintenance)

During this phase, although the programme content can (and must) change, the intensity is kept more or-less
constant with different programmes of similar degrees of difficulty.

1.1.2.1 Four periodisation phases of programme design

The four periodisation phases of programme design are based on the three general phases of programme design
mentioned above. These four phases are structured within an annual exercise programme:

 Developmental phase
 Progression phase
 Maintenance phase
 Recovery phase

There is a progressive increase in the volume of work (product of intensity and duration of sessions) over the span
of the year as one progresses from one phase to the next. Periods of active rest are included within these phases, as
well as between the phases, to allow for periods of recovery and adaptation of training to prepare the body for more
intense work to follow in the next phase.

Developmental phase of periodisation

The focus of the developmental phase is to develop muscular endurance and hypertrophy training and then progress
to muscular strength and power. Cardiovascular training in the development phase focuses mostly on health and
fitness and progresses by including some anaerobic threshold training for those who can withstand the training
intensity.

The goal of the development phase is to strengthen joint structures to prepare for the more intense activity to come
and to develop a sound aerobic base. The aerobic base assists in faster recovery during high intensity sets which, in
turn, leads to a greater capacity to do more work during a training session. As previously mentioned: more work
done, better body composition.

Progression phase of periodisation

In the progression phase the main focus is to maintain muscular strength and develop muscular power and power
endurance. The cardiovascular goal is to maintain fitness by including at least one fitness session per week as well
as anaerobic threshold and anaerobic training (if applicable for the client).

Clients with a greater focus on muscle hypertrophy will participate less in low intensity cardiovascular activities than
clients whose primary goal is to improve cardiovascular fitness.

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CHAPTER 2: PERIODISATION OF AN ANNUAL PROGRAMME

Body composition is relevant to the type and frequency of training. The body adapts according to the demands
placed upon it. For example, after long term participation in low intensity aerobic endurance exercise the body will
be more slender (low body fat percentage and slender muscles). The physiological adaptation is relevant to the
specific physical activity, i.e. developing slender muscles will improve oxygen delivery to the muscles during aerobic
exercise.

However, cardiovascular activity during warm-up stimulates anabolic hormones which assist in building muscle.

The health benefits of cardiovascular exercise should not be ignored and some cardiovascular exercise should be
included in resistance training programmes. The incorporation of high intensity aerobic training into resistance
training programmes ensures aerobic health benefits as well as anaerobic development.

The progressive approach should remain the focus of programme design.

Maintenance phase of periodisation

The maintenance phase focuses on maintaining what has been developed in previous phases (muscular strength,
power, power endurance, cardiovascular fitness and some anaerobic training). Volume is maintained at a moderate
level. Some periodic peaks of muscular and cardiovascular capacity can be introduced by reducing duration and
increasing intensity to almost maximal levels for a week or two. Increase of capability will follow. During these
periods, when capacity is peaked, one can include an annual major testing session to identify if the overall goal has
been achieved.

Recovery phase of periodisation

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The recovery phase aims to provide time for recovery by reducing the intensity of training and duration (volume) of
work and incorporating types of recreational exercise not traditionally included in the programme, such as playing
recreational sport. The recovery period is generally two to four weeks in duration.

Methods of periodisation
The annual plan is referred to as the macrocycle and the periodisation phases of the annual plan are referred to as
mesocycles. The weeks or days within the mesocycle are referred to as microcyles.

A basic method of periodisation is called the Step Method. The Step Method refers to progressive increases in the
volume of work over a four week period (mesocycle). This four week model can be adjusted over a shorter or longer
period (e.g. two to six week periods). Volume of work refers to both intensity and duration. In the four week
example volume is increased progressively over the first three weeks and drops during the fourth week as follows:
Week 1 – Low, Week 2 – Medium, Week 3 – High, Week 4 - Medium. The volume is relative to the four week cycle.
The next four weeks might follow the same volume progression model, but will be at a slightly higher level than the
previous four week cycle. The reason for the reduction in volume in the fourth week of the mesocycle is to facilitate
adaptation achieved from the training done during the previous three weeks. Each mesocycle or group of mesocycles
should have an assigned goal. Each week in a mesocycle is considered a microcycle (a shorter training period than a
mesocycle) that is manipulated (referring to volume) to achieve the goal of the mesocycle to which it belongs.
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Volume (intensity x duration) of

work done per week

Mesocycle 1 Mesocycle 2 Mesocycle 3 Mesocycle 4

Figure 1.1 Step loading: mesocycle 1-4

Another method of periodisation is ‘Flat Loading’, during which the mesocycle (e.g. four week mesocycle) contains
more microcycles of higher intensity than Step Loading. For example, the volume assigned to each of the four weeks
is structured as follows, Week 1 – high; Week 2 – high; Week 3 – high; Week 4 –Low; the continuous high volume
training over a number of consecutive weeks forces the body into a state of short term over-training and, when
followed by a short period of recovery (low volume active rest), the body adapts and breaks the ceiling of previous
training levels.
Volume (intensity x duration) of work
done per week

Mesocycle 1: step Mesocycle 2: flat Mesocycle 3: flat Mesocycle 4: step

loading loading loading loading

Figure 1.2 Step and flat loading mesocycle 1-4

The step method is used throughout the annual plan and interspersed with flat loading mesocycles. Flat loading is
predominantly used during the developmental phase of the annual training programme. During the maintenance
phase volume is maintained at a moderate level and during recovery phase at low volume levels. Training volume
should progress from one year to the next. Training exercises should also progress from isolation to compound and
from simple to more complex exercises throughout the annual plan.

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CONCLUSION

Specialised methods are used to develop each component of fitness. The duration of the periodisation phases
over the span of a year must be structured according to the client’s goals and assessment results (strengths
and weaknesses). More time should be spent on the client’s weaknesses and less on strengths.
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 PERSONAL TRAINER

Assessment and
Programming 120
CHAPTER 1: STRENGTH, MUSCLE ENDURANCE, CARDIOVASCULAR TESTS
CHAPTER 2: DESIGNING MICROCYCLES
CHAPTER 3: ELECTIVE - SAFETY
CHAPTER 4: ELECTIVE - TRAINING IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS
CHAPTER 5: ELECTIVE - SPORTS CONDITIONINGNG
Duration: Term 3 and 4
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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING
AS

CHAPTER 1: STRENGTH,
MUSCLE ENDURANCE,
CARDIOVASCULAR TESTS
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This chapter provides an overview of the assessment protocols

for each of the components of fitness.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

 Demonstrate the ability to use evaluation ‘instruments’

and interpret evaluation results.
 Demonstrate the ability to prepare an individual for
exercise testing, i.e. preparation protocol and informed
consent.
 Choose the appropriate tests for an individual.
 Demonstrate the ability to conduct all tests accurately,
following all protocols with appropriate customer care
skills.
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1.1 MUSCULAR STRENGTH TESTS

Muscular strength tests assess the ability of the muscles involved in the movement to execute maximal force
against resistance.

See below testing protocols of the following muscular strength tests:

Note that the multiple repetition maximum test is used for those who lack knowledge of exercise techniques
(beginners). It is the preferred method to assess muscular strength of single joint exercises. The one
repetition maximum test, on the other hand, is used to assess strength of muscles used in multi-joint
(compound) exercise. The one repetition maximum test is used for individuals with sound exercise technique
and who are able to accurately estimate the maximal weight they can lift for one repetition of the movement
on the day of assessment.
 Multiple repetition maximum test
 One repetition maximum test
Contra-indications: Hypertension

Multiple repetition maximum

The following protocol was derived from Sharkey and Gaskill (2006).

The client warms up aerobically, performing a dynamic warm-up set with light or no resistance. Estimate a
weight that the client will be able to lift for ten repetitions.

If the client can do more than ten repetitions, stop the client and instruct the client to rest for three to five
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minutes. During the rest period increase the weight according to the ease at which the client could execute
the repetitions in the previous set.

After the rest period instruct the client to do another set. Continue this procedure until a weight is identified
that the client can only lift for 2 or more repetitions, but no more than ten repetitions. Use the table below to
estimate the client’s one repetition maximum for the particular exercise (Fleck and Kraemer, 1987).
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Table 1.1 Estimating one repetition maximum from multiple repetition (2-10 reps) maximum weight

Multiple repetition maximum Percentage of one repetition maximum

score
2 0.935
3 0.910
4 0.885
5 0.860
7 0.835
8 0.785
9 0.760
10 0.735

For Example:

A client performs flat dumbbell presses for his multiple repetition test. He is a beginner and estimates that he
can press about 12kg for 10 repetitions. He performs the exercise a few times, with breaks in between, slowly
increasing the weight as he goes. Each time he can perform more than 10 reps. At 20kg he can only perform
5 repetitions. This is where the test stops. To gain an indication of what his one repetition maximum would
be you would use the table as follows:

Calculation:

20kg divided by 0.860

(where 0.860 indicates
that the client performed
86% of his one rep max)

= 23.26kg (this is an
approximation of his one
rep max)

One repetition maximum

Client performs dynamic warms up set, 5 to 10 repetitions completing submaximal repetitions (light weight).
The selection of the initial weight should be calculated as 50-70% of capacity.

The warm-up set is followed by a one minute rest period during which the weight is increased (guideline of 4-
9kg for upper body and 14-18kg for lower body). After the rest period, three to five repetitions are performed
with adjusted weight. Followed by a two minute rest period.

The weight is increased again (guideline of 4-9kg for upper body and 14-18kg for lower body) during the
break. After the rest period two to three repetitions are performed with the newly adjusted weight. A two to
four minute rest period is given, again increasing the weight; this time to the estimated one repetition load
(guideline incremental increase in load of 4-9kg for upper body and 14-18kg for lower body).

The one repetition maximum is attempted after the break and if the attempt is successful the weight is yet
again increased during a two to four minute rest period.

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The increase in weight is continued until the maximum amount of weight is established that can be lifted for
only one repetition executed with sound technique.

The 1Rmax should be determined within four to five attempts with recovery periods of 3-4 minutes between
attempts.

The final weight is that which is lifted successfully as 1RM or multiple RM. This value can be used as intra-
individual data or against normative data, resistance lifted divided by body weight (Beachle and Eearle, 2008).

Please note that the intensity for resistance exercises is prescribed as a percentage of the one repetition (or
estimated one repetition maximum). Therefore one is required to assess 1RM or multiple RM for each exercise
prescribed and not just for the general assessment of upper and lower body strength.

1.2 MUSCULAR ENDURANCE TESTS

Muscular endurance tests assess the ability of the muscles involved in the movement to repeatedly execute a
movement. The longer and/or faster a movement is executed, the better the muscular endurance.

See below testing protocols of the following muscular endurance tests. Note that each test assesses the
muscular endurance of a different body region and the assessor should therefore consider including all of
these tests to identify muscular endurance of all/most regions of the body.

 Abdominal test
 Push-up test
 Quadriceps test
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Abdominal

The sit-up test is used to indicate endurance status and strength of the abdominals.

Contra-indications: back problems, heart problems, hernia

Score: number of correct sit-ups done in 60 seconds

Table 1.2 Muscular abdominal endurance norms (males)

Males <20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 60+

Excellent >49 >44 >39 >34 >29 >29

Above 44-48 39-43 34-38 29-33 24-28 24-28

average

Average 37-43 32-38 27-33 22-28 17-23 17-23

Below 24-36 20-31 16-26 12-21 8-16 8-16

average

Poor <24 <20 <16 <12 <8 <8

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Table 1.3 Muscular abdominal endurance norms (females)

Females <20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 60+

Excellent >42 >36 >30 >24 >18 >18

Above 32-41 27-35 22-29 17-23 12-17 12-17

average

Average 25-31 21-26 17-21 13-16 9-11 9-11

Below 19-24 15-20 11-16 7-12 3-8 3-8

average

Poor <19 <15 <11 <7 <3 <3

Push-up Test

Used to indicate the endurance status and strength of the pectorals, triceps and shoulder muscles.

Contra-indications: weakness in the back causing hyperextension, heart problems, hernia, shoulder and
elbow joint problems

Score: number of correct push ups done in 60 seconds

Table 1.4 Upper body muscular endurance norms

AGE 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69

GENDER M F M F M F M F M F

Excellent 36 30 30 27 25 24 21 21 18 17

Very good 35 29 29 26 24 23 20 20 17 16

29 21 22 20 17 15 13 11 11 12

Good 28 20 21 19 16 14 12 10 10 11

22 15 17 13 13 11 10 7 8 5

Fair 21 14 16 12 12 10 9 6 7 4

17 10 12 8 10 5 7 2 5 2

Needs 16 9 11 7 9 4 6 1 4 1
Improvement

Quadriceps Test

Used to indicate the endurance status and strength of the quadriceps muscles.

Contra-indications: knee problems

Score: stand erect and execute as many knee bends as possible – bend to the point where the heels would
have to leave the ground, then push up again. Continue until you cannot return to standing.

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1.3 CARDIOVASCULAR TESTS

Cardiovascular tests evaluate the effectiveness of the cardiovascular system to supply oxygen and nutrients
to the working muscles as well as the ability of these muscle to utilise the oxygen and nutrients.

Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) is the SI (International system) unit to assess the functionality of this
system. VO2max is measured in millilitres per kilogram per minute (ml/kg/min); measuring the maximum
amount of oxygen that is utilised by the working muscles of every kilogram that the client weighs for every
minute that he/she exercises.

Table 1.5 provides normative values for VO2max:

Table 1.5 Fitness Classifications based on VO2 max values

Age Low Average High Very High

20 – 29 <1.99 km 2.00–2.49 km 2.50 – 2.79 km 2.80 + km

28 ml/kg/min 35–43 ml/kg/min 44-48 ml/kg/min 49+ ml/kg/min

30 – 39 <1.89 km 1.90 – 2.39 km 2.40 – 2.69 km 2.70 + km

27 ml/kg/min 34-41 ml/kg/min 42-47 ml/kg/min 48+ ml/kg/min

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See below testing protocols of the following cardiovascular tests. Choose one test that best relates to your
client’s goals and fitness level:

 Rockport 1 mile walk test

 Cooper 12-minute walk/run test
 Sub-maximal step test
 Beep test

The Rockport 1 mile walk test

Participants walk 1 mile on a flat track at maximum speed. Upon completing the distance, a 10 to 15 second
heart rate is obtained and multiplied by 6 or 4 to obtain bpm. Maximal oxygen uptake is calculated by means
of the tables in Appendix I (page 7). The tables are specific for the age and gender of participants.
Heart rates obtained directly after the 1-mile walk are listed across the top of the table. Using these
tables one can ascertain the client’s VO2max and, referring to Table 1 below, classify fitness level based on
VO2 max values.

The Cooper 12-minute walk/run test

This test is designed to measure VO2 max indirectly. Clients are asked to walk/run as far as possible in 12
minutes. VO2 max can then be estimated according to the distance covered in that time. Appendix II
(page 11) gives the graph used for this calculation and the results are evaluated according to the fitness
classifications in Table 1.5.

The sub-maximal step test

The sub-maximal step test, developed by Dr Fred Kasch of San Diego University and used by the YMCA for
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mass testing is easily administered as it requires little equipment and tests a person’s maximal oxygen
uptake at a low intensity; however this test should not be administered to symptomatic and diseased
individuals or to those with joint problems in the lower extremities - who may have difficulty in performing
the it.
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The procedure for this test is as follows:

 A gymnasium bench 30, 48 cm high (12 inch), stopwatch and metronome are used in this
test.

 The stepping cycle is performed to a four-step cadence (up-up-down-down). Men should

perform twenty four complete step-ups per minute, regulated with a metronome set at 96
beats per minute. Women perform twenty-two step-ups per minute or 88 beats per minute
on the metronome.

 Allow a brief practice period of five to ten seconds for clients to familiarise themselves with
the stepping cadence.

 Begin the test and perform the step-ups for exactly three minutes.

 Upon completion of the three minutes, the client remains standing while the heart rate is
measured for a fifteen-second interval, from five to twenty seconds to recovery. Convert
recovery heart rate to beats per minute (multiply 15-second heart rate by 4).

 Maximal oxygen uptake in ml/kg/min is estimated according to the following equations:

Men:
VO2max = 111.33 - (0.42 x recovery heart rate in bpm)

Women:
VO2max = 65.81 - (0.1847 x recovery heart rate in bpm)

Example: The recovery fifteen-second heart rate for a male subject following the three-minute step test is
found to be 39 beats.

Maximal oxygen uptake is estimated as follows:

Fifteen-second HR = 39 beats

Minute HR = 39 x 4 = 156 bpm

Max oxygen uptake = 111.33 – (0.42 x 156) = 45, 81 ml/kg/min

The Beep Test

The beep test is a variation of the shuttle run test. The 20m multistage fitness test is a commonly used maximal
running aerobic fitness test. It is also known as the 20 meter shuttle run test.
Visit http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/20mshuttle.htm for more information on the Beep
test.

CONCLUSION
Tests for each of the components of fitness need to be included in a client’s initial assessment as well as follow
up assessments. Strengths and weaknesses are identified from these tests and programmes are designed
based on the information gathered from them.
The methods for developing programmes based on these assessments are discussed in Module 3.

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APPENDIX I: ROCKPORT ONE MILE ESTIMATED MAXIMAL OXYGEN UPTAKE (ml.kg-1.min-1)

Method to interpret results:

Example: Male client age 25, completes the Rockport one mile test in 12 minutes. His post exercise heart rate is
140 beats per minute (bpm). His estimated VO2max according to the table below is 55.3 ml.kg-1.min-1. The
result is encircled in the table below. The result was identified as follows: identify the correct table as per gender
and age group. The correct column of the table is identified by finding the time which the client completed the
one mile in. Then move down the column to the row which correlates with the client’s post exercise heart rate.

Men (20 - 29)

Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
65,0 61,7 58,4 55,2 51,9 48,6 45,4 42,1 38,9 35,6 32,3
120 bpm

130 bpm 63,4 60,1 56,9 53,6 50,3 47,1 43,8 40,6 37,3 34 30,8
140 bpm 61,8 58,6 55,3 52 48,8 45,5 42,2 39 35,7 32,5 29,2
150 bpm 60,3 57,0 53,7 50,5 47,2 43,9 40,7 37,4 34,2 30,9 27,6
160 bpm 58,7 55,4 52,2 48,9 45,6 42,4 39,1 35,9 32,6 29,3 26,1
170 bpm 57,1 53,9 50,6 47,3 44,1 40,8 37,6 34,3 31 27,8 24,5
180 bpm 55,6 52,3 49 45,8 42,5 39,3 36 32,7 29,5 26,2 22,9
190 bpm 54,0 50,7 47,5 44,2 41 37,7 34,4 31,2 27,9 24,6 21,4
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200 bpm 52,4 49,2 45,9 42,7 39,4 36,1 32,9 29,6 26,3 23,1 19,8

Women (20-29)
Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
62,1 58,9 55,6 52,3 49,1 45,8 42,5 39,3 36,0 32,7 29,5
120 bpm

130 bpm 60,6 57,3 54,0 50,8 47,5 44,2 41,0 32,7 34,4 31,2 27,9
140 bpm 59,0 55,7 52,5 49,2 45,9 42,7 39,4 36,1 32,9 29,6 26,3
150 bpm 57,4 54,2 50,9 47,6 44,4 41,1 37,8 34,6 31,3 28,0 24,8
160 bpm 55,9 52,6 49,3 46,1 42,8 39,5 36,3 33,0 29,7 26,5 23,2
170 bpm 54,3 51,0 7,8 44,5 41,2 38,0 34,7 31,4 28,2 24,9 21,6
180 bpm 52,7 49,5 46,2 42,9 39,7 36,4 33,1 29,9 26,6 23,3 20,1
190 bpm 51,2 47,9 44,6 41,4 38,1 34,8 31,6 28,3 25,0 21,8 18,5
200 bpm 49,6 46,3 43,1 39,8 36,5 33,3 30,0 26,7 23,5 20,2 16,9
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Men (30-39)
Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
61,10 57,80 54,60 51,30 48,00 44,80 41,50 38,20 35,00 31,70 28,40
120 bpm

130 bpm 59,50 56,30 53,00 49,70 46,50 43,20 39,90 36,70 33,40 30,10 26,90
140 bpm 58,00 54,70 51,40 48,20 44,90 41,60 38,40 35,10 31,80 28,60 25,30
150 bpm 56,40 53,10 49,90 46,60 43,30 40,10 36,80 33,50 30,30 27,00 23,80
160 bpm 54,80 51,60 48,30 45,00 41,80 38,50 35,20 32,00 28,70 25,50 22,20
170 bpm 53,30 50,00 46,70 43,50 40,20 36,90 33,70 30,40 27,10 23,90 20,60
180 bpm 51,70 48,40 45,20 41,90 38,60 35,40 32,10 28,80 25,60 22,30 19,10
190 bpm 50,10 46,90 43,60 40,30 37,10 33,80 30,50 27,30 24,00 20,80 17,50

Women (30-39)
Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
58,2 55,0 51,7 48,4 45,2 41,9 38,7 35,4 32,1 28,9 25,6
120 bpm

130 bpm 56,7 53,4 50,1 46,9 43,6 40,9 37,1 33,8 30,6 27,3 24,0
140 bpm 55,1 51,8 48,5 45,3 42,1 38,8 35,5 32,3 29,0 25,7 22,5
150 bpm 53,5 50,3 47,0 43,8 40,5 37,2 34,0 30,7 27,4 24,2 20,9
160 bpm 52,0 48,7 45,4 42,2 38,9 35,7 32,4 29,1 25,9 22,6 19,3
170 bpm 50,4 47,1 43,9 40,6 37,4 34,1 30,8 27,6 24,3 21,0 17,8
180 bpm 48,8 45,6 42,3 39,1 35,8 32,5 29,3 26,0 22,7 19,5 16,2
190 bpm 47,3 44,0 40,8 37,5 34,2 31,0 27,7 24,4 21,2 17,9 14,6

Men (40-49)
Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
57,2 54,0 50,7 47,4 44,2 40,9 37,6 34,4 31,1 27,8 24,6
120 bpm

130 bpm 55,7 52,4 49,1 45,9 42,6 39,3 36,1 32,8 29,5 26,3 23,0
140 bpm 54,1 50,8 47,6 44,3 41,0 37,8 34,5 31,2 28,0 24,7 21,4
150 bpm 52,5 49,3 46,0 42,7 39,5 36,2 32,9 29,7 26,4 23,1 19,9
160 bpm 51,0 47,7 44,4 41,2 37,9 34,6 31,4 28,1 24,8 21,6 18,3
170 bpm 49,4 46,1 42,9 39,6 36,3 33,1 29,8 26,5 23,3 20,0 16,7
180 bpm 47,8 44,6 41,3 38,0 34,8 31,5 28,2 25,0 21,7 18,4 15,2

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Women (40-49)
Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
54,4 51,1 47,8 44,6 41,3 38,0 34,8 31,5 28,2 25,0 21,7
120 bpm

130 bpm 52,8 49,5 46,3 43,0 39,7 36,5 33,2 29,9 26,7 23,4 20,1
140 bpm 51,2 48,0 44,7 41,4 38,2 34,9 31,6 28,4 25,1 21,8 18,6
150 bpm 49,7 46,4 43,1 39,9 36,6 33,3 30,1 26,8 23,5 20,3 17,0
160 bpm 48,1 44,8 41,6 38,3 35,0 31,8 28,5 25,2 22,0 18,7 15,5
170 bpm 46,5 43,3 40,0 36,7 33,5 30,2 26,9 23,7 20,4 17,2 13,9
180 bpm 45,0 41,7 38,4 35,2 31,9 28,6 25,4 22,1 18,9 15,6 12,3

Men (50-59)
Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
53,3 50,0 46,8 43,5 40,3 37,0 33,7 30,5 27,2 23,9 20,7
120 bpm

130 bpm 51,7 48,5 45,2 42,0 38,7 35,4 32,2 28,9 25,6 22,4 19,1
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140 bpm 50,2 46,9 43,7 40,4 37,1 33,9 30,6 27,3 24,1 20,8 17,5
150 bpm 48,6 45,4 42,1 38,8 35,6 32,3 29,0 25,8 22,5 19,2 16,0
160 bpm 47,1 43,8 40,5 37,3 34,0 30,7 27,5 24,2 20,9 17,7 14,4
170 bpm 45,5 42,2 39,0 35,7 32,4 29,2 25,9 22,6 19,4 16,1 12,8

Women (50-59)
Minute per
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile

Heart rate:
50,5 47,2 43,9 40,7 37,4 34,1 30,9 27,6 24,3 21,1 17,8
120 bpm

130 bpm 48,9 45,6 42,4 39,1 35,8 32,6 29,3 26,0 22,8 19,5 16,2
140 bpm 47,3 44,1 40,8 37,5 34,3 31,0 27,7 24,5 21,2 17,9 14,7
150 bpm 45,8 42,5 39,2 36,0 32,7 29,4 26,2 22,9 19,6 16,4 13,1
160 bpm 44,2 40,9 37,7 34,4 31,1 27,9 24,6 21,3 18,1 14,8 11,5
170 bpm 42,6 39,4 36,1 32,8 29,6 26,3 23,0 19,8 16,5 13,2 10,0
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Men (60-69)
Minute
per 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile
Heart
rate:
49,4 46,2 42,9 39,6 36,4 33,1 29,8 26,6 23,3 20,0 16,8
120
bpm
130
47,9 44,6 41,3 38,1 34,8 31,5 28,3 25,0 21,7 18,5 15,2
bpm
140
46,3 43,0 39,8 36,5 33,2 30,0 26,7 23,4 20,2 16,9 13,6
bpm
150
44,7 41,5 38,2 34,9 31,7 28,4 25,1 21,9 18,6 15,3 12,1
bpm
160
43,2 39,0 36,6 33,4 30,1 26,8 23,6 20,3 17,0 13,8 10,5
bpm

Women (60-69)
Minute
per 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
mile
Heart
rate:
46,6 43,3 40,0 36,8 33,5 30,2 27,0 23,7 20,5 17,2 13,9
120
bpm
130
45,0 41,7 38,5 35,2 31,9 28,7 25,4 22,2 18,9 15,6 12,4
bpm
140
43,4 40,2 36,9 33,6 30,4 27,1 23,8 20,6 17,3 14,1 10,8
bpm
150
41,9 38,6 35,3 32,1 28,8 25,5 22,3 19,0 15,8 12,5 9,2
bpm
160
40,3 37,0 33,8 30,5 27,2 24,0 20,7 17,5 14,2 10,9 7,7
bpm

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 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 11
CHAPTER 1:STRENGTH, MUSCLE ENDURANCE AND CARDIOVASCULAR TEST

APPENDIX II: COOPER 12 MINUTES FIELD TEST TO MEASURE VO2 MAX

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CHAPTER 2: DESIGNING
MICROCYCLES
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The aim of this chapter is to describe how to design a

microcycle (one week training programme).

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

 Design a safe and effective gym-based exercise

programme appropriate to the needs and goals
of the individual taking into account the results
obtained in the screening and evaluation report
(paper and real-life case studies).
 Apply the basic guidelines of programme design
in the selection and order of exercises.
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INTRODUCTION
PROGRAMME DESIGN FOR MICROCYCLE
Once the training goals are structured for the annual plan (as described in Chapter 1) the trainer can start developing
the daily exercise programmes (microcycles) for the first mesocycle (average duration = 2-6 weeks). Note that one
should never design an exercise programme more than two weeks in advance; this is to provide flexibility in adjusting
the programme according to the client’s response to the training programme.

2.1 DESIGNING A ONE-DAY PROGRAMME

Designing a one day exercise programme can just be a ‘list of exercises’ that an instructor writes up to keep his/her
client busy. However, this defeats the primary purpose of an individualised programme tailored to the client’s specific
needs. Instead the trainer should consider all the design variables and choose exercises carefully and deliberately,
based on these variables.

When designing a one-day programme the instructor should take into account the specific training phase as well as
the client’s exercise and health history, strengths and weaknesses.

Exercise Selection:

Exercise selection is influenced by the FITT principle (Frequency, Intensity, Time available for exercise and Type of
exercise).

 Consider the client’s current training phase; based on this is the instructor can decide if the
focus should be on isolation or compound exercise.

 Which muscle groups were identified in the Personal Questionnaire as requiring assessment and
goal identification? Target these.

 How much time can the client spend at the gym? If time is limited, simple exercises are
preferable; more complex exercises require more time.

 How experienced is the client? A beginner could possibly find machine exercises easier than free
weights as they require less skill and technique, thus the risk of injury is reduced.

Frequency:

 What is the client’s training status? A beginner should train 2-3 times a week, while an advanced
client should have 4 or more sessions a week. It is preferable to space the workouts evenly
throughout the week (Monday, Wednesday and Friday) as this allows the body a full day of rest
between training sessions. When working the same muscle group at low or moderate intensities
there should be no more than three days of rest between sessions. During the maintenance
phase, training 1 to 3 times a week will be sufficient to maintain fitness levels in all components.

 Split routines can be used if muscle groups are trained frequently enough for improvement to
take place. When the intention is to develop hypertrophy or muscular strength, frequency can
be reduced due to the intensity of the training. The advantage of using split routines is that
one can focus on specific muscle groups (back, legs, chest etc.) during a single training session.

 Cardiovascular training should be performed at least 2 to 3 times a week for improvement to

take place.
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Table 2.1 Frequency and resistance exercise selection according to training status

Frequency No. times / week Resistance Exercises CV Exercises

Beginner 2-3 Machines 10-12 min
Intermediate 3-4 Free weights 12-15 min
Advanced 4-7 Compound 15+ min

Exercise order:

During exercise muscles work co-operatively in different roles and therefore tire at different times. For this reason it is
important to arrange exercises in a specific order. A muscle that has a synergistic role in one exercise will not perform
well as the prime mover in the following exercise. Therefore ‘push’ exercises should be performed before ‘pull’ exercises.

Exercises should be arranged in order of descending priority; the more demanding exercises (compound and power
exercises) should be performed at the beginning of the session, as they require more energy than the less demanding
(single joint) exercises. When the order is changed (i.e. ‘pull’ before ‘push’ or single-joint exercises before compound
exercises) the muscles are pre-fatigued and will develop muscular endurance. However, these muscles will not perform
optimally in the next exercise.

If the training session includes both resistance and cardiovascular exercises, resistance training exercises should be
performed first. At the end of the resistance training section of the programme the body is already in the oxidative fat
burning zone when performing cardiovascular exercise.

Intensity:
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The speed, weight and number of repetitions in an exercise programme are dictated by the purpose of the exercise
and the goals of the client. It is, however, important from a safety point of view, to avoid sudden, jerky and uncontrolled
movements that could cause injury to joints and muscles. Control is particularly important when using heavy weights.
Taking a joint/muscle slowly through its full range of movement (4 to 6 seconds per repetition) is favoured for clients
who wish to build muscle and gain muscle strength. The only time when speed of movement is emphasised is during
muscular power and power endurance exercises.

There are general rules that apply with regard to strength and endurance training:

 Weight/Resistance: Strength training = more resistance/less repetitions. Endurance training

= less resistance/more repetitions.

 Sets: A set is a group of repetitions e.g. 3 x 15 (3 sets of 15). Training for muscular endurance
requires more repetitions and less sets (2 or 3 sets). Muscular strength training requires less
repetitions and more sets (3 to 6 sets). Keep in mind the cumulative effect of the exercises for
the whole workout.

 Rest periods: Rest periods are important (between exercises and between sessions) to allow
muscles to “recover”. A time-effective way to rest a muscle after exercise is to work a different
muscle/muscle group that was not involved in the previous exercise. For muscular endurance
training a very short rest period of 30 seconds or less is preferable. For muscular strength a
longer rest period of 30 seconds – 5 minutes is preferable.

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Variation:

Variation can be described as a determined change in the programme so as to expose the client to new or different
exercises.

In time, a client’s progress will level off (plateau) or may even decrease. This is due to the body’s ability to adapt to
exercise. When this occurs the programme should be changed or adapted to keep the body ‘guessing’. Introducing
new exercises will also prevent the client from becoming bored with the training.

There is enormous potential in the use of gym equipment and although each machine is designed for a specific purpose,
with experience, an instructor can learn to be innovative in designing resistance exercises to accommodate the different
needs and goals of clients and use equipment creatively to add variety to programmes.

Some ideas for adding variety to a programme include:

 Changing the cardiovascular section from running to cycling

 Using pyramid training (ascending or descending)
 Super-setting
 Tri-sets or giant sets
 Stripping method or descending sets
 Pre and post-exhaust systems
 Forced repetitions
 Negative repetitions
 Cheating method
 Alternating heavy, light and medium intensity training during the week
 Circuit training

Progression:

Progression refers to the adaptation of the programme by:

 Increasing the weight, repetitions and/or sets

 Combining exercises in a different way
 Increasing training frequency
 Increasing number or difficulty of the exercises

2.2 CIRCUIT TRAINING

Circuit training is a form of interval training involving a combination of strength and endurance exercises
performed in sequence at a number of exercise stations, with relatively brief rest intervals between each station.

There are different types of circuit training, e.g. a circuit designed to enhance muscular endurance consists of 6 to 10
stations incorporating muscular endurance exercises such as leg press, peck deck, sit ups, etc. Aerobic circuits feature
4 to 8 aerobic exercise stations where workload at each station is set at 50 to 70% of the client’s functional capacity.

Circuits can also be effective for strength development. Strength training circuits consist of 10 to 12 exercise stations
featuring single station weight machines to work each major muscle group in sequence.
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In practical training, students at this level of the course will be taught how to set up a circuit for maximum effectiveness
and safe transition between stations. Students must also be able to draw up clear and technically correct circuit training
cards/training programmes.

E.g. Shoulder press – leg press – lat pull down – calf raise – chest press – leg extension – seated row – leg curl –
triceps push down – abdominal crunch – biceps curl – back extension. Exercise for 45 seconds, rest for 30 seconds at
approximately 50% of 1RM.

2.3 COMPONENTS OF EXERCISE PROGRAMMES

Focus now shifts to designing the first two weeks of the first mesocycle.

Each exercise session should include:

 Warm-up
 Flexibility
 Main set: either muscle fitness or cardio-respiratory fitness or both
 Cool down/relaxation

Warm-up

The warm-up consists of the following components:

 Rotational exercises
 Cardiovascular warm-up
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Rotational exercises:

The warm-up starts with rotational exercises of the joints to activate secretion of synovial fluid which “oils the joints”
and eases movement during the workout.

Duration: 2-5 minutes

Repetitions: 15 – 20
Sets: 1-3

Examples of rotational exercises:

 Ankle External rotations

 Ankle Internal rotations
 Hip external rotations
 Hip internal rotations
 Spine half/side to side rotations
 Shoulder external rotations
 Shoulder internal rotations
 Wrist external rotations
 Wrist internal rotations
 Right to left neck rotations

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Cardiovascular warm-up:

The cardiovascular warm-up increases body temperature. The increase in temperature speeds up metabolic rate
improving efficiency of movement during the main set of the programme. Perspiration is a physical indication that body
temperature has increased and the cardiovascular warm-up can stop.

Duration: 5-10 minutes (the fitter the athlete/client, the longer this section of the warm-up)
Intensity: 40-60% of heart rate maximum

Examples of cardiovascular warm-up exercises:

(Any multi joint exercise that is performed in rhythmic fashion)

 Walking or running on treadmill

 Stationary cycle
 Stepper
 Rope skipping
 Row ergometer (rowing)
 Arm crank / arm ergometer

Dynamic stretches:

Dynamic stretches activate neural pathways to ensure greater efficiency of movement in the main set of the
programme. These are stretches performed whilst moving; they involve multi joint dynamic movements such as body
weight walking lunges, spider man push-ups, etc. and may also involve the use of light weights.

Static stretches:

Static stretches aim to improve range of movement in muscles that lack flexibility; this is vital to ensure correct
technique is applied during exercise.

Duration: 15 – 30 seconds per muscle group

Sets: 1-2 sets per muscle group

Intensity: To the point of mild discomfort

Refer to the practical manual for examples of dynamic and static stretching.

Main-set:

Resistance exercises should be performed first if both resistance and cardiovascular exercises are included in the
programme.

Refer to Module 3, Chapter 1 for the intensity, frequency, time and type of exercise that should be included for either
muscular or cardiovascular fitness. Refer to the practical manual for examples of exercises to be included in each
session for the first two weeks of the first mesocycle.

There need not be any change in the training programme between the first and second week (microcycles) as the
body takes a minimum of four weeks to adapt to a programme. As previously mentioned do not prescribe more than
three rest days between training the same muscle groups.
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Exercise order:

 Power exercises (if applicable)

 Compound (multi-joint exercises)
 Single joint exercises (larger to smaller muscle groups) - ‘push’ exercises before ‘pull’ exercise
 Muscles that were used to stabilise the body during the session (such as abdominals, core and
calf muscles)

Use table 3.5 as an example of how to present the main-set for resistance training in a programme:

Table 2.2 Exercise prescription per training phase

Training phase Developmental Progression Maintenance Recovery

Early Late
developmental developmental
Muscular Choose one: Choose one:  Strength  Strength  Active
component of  Endurance  Strength maintenance power rest
fitness  Hypertrophy  Power  Power
 Power endurance
endurance
Cardiovascular  Health/  Fitness  Fitness  Fitness  Health/
component of fitness  Anaerobic  Anaerobic  Anaerobic fitness
fitness threshold threshold threshold
 Anaerobic (if  Anaerobic (if
applicable) applicable)
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Training phase: Development phase

Training component: Muscular endurance
Duration: 20 – 40 minutes

Table 2.3 Example resistance exercise format table

Exercise Picture of exercise Muscles involved Intensity Repetitions Sets Rest

name exercise (percentage period
of one between
Rep max) sets

Squats Quadriceps 60-65 12-15 1-2 60 sec

(vastus lateralis,
vastus medialis,
vastus intermedius,
rectus femoris)

The cardio vascular exercises during the main-set of the programme differ in duration and intensity from the
cardiovascular exercises in the warm-up and cool-down section.

Duration: 5-30 minutes or longer

Intensity: Dependant on the client’s current periodisation phase.

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Examples of cardiovascular exercises: any multi joint exercise performed in rhythmic fashion:

 Walking or running on a treadmill

 Stationary cycle
 Stepper
 Rope skipping
 Row ergometer (rowing)
 Arm crank/ergometer

Cool-down:

The purpose of the cool-down is to return the body to resting levels.

Cardiovascular cool-down: to assist in the removal of by-products such as lactate and hydrogen ions and prevent blood
pooling.

Duration: 5 minutes
Intensity: 40% of maximum heart rate

Examples:
 Walking on treadmill
 Stationary cycle
 Stepper
 Row ergometer (rowing)
 Arm crank/ergometer

Static stretching:

Stretching to improve flexibility is best done at the end of the exercise session when muscles are warm.
Flexibility both at the beginning and end of the session should focus on the muscles used in the training session.
Include a minimum of one PNF stretch in each session.

Duration: 15 – 30 seconds per muscle group

Sets: 1-2 sets per muscle group
Intensity: to the point of mild discomfort.

Examples: refer to practical manual for examples

Ensure each element is included in every training session for the number of days per week that the client will train
(frequency).

2.4 BENEFITS OF A PERSONALISED EXERCISE PROGRAMME

The benefits of a personalised exercise programme cannot be overemphasised. They include:

 Intensity, frequency, duration and type of exercise is geared to the client’s current fitness level

 A safe, effective, progressive programme is tailored and adapted to achieve the client’s short,
medium and long-term goals

 Specific, individual problems and needs are taken into account, e.g. correction of biomechanical
deficiencies, postural problems, etc.
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 Individual instruction and monitoring ensures correct execution of exercise

 A personalised exercise regimen can cater to individual time schedules

2.5 GUIDELINES FOR DESIGNING A WORKOUT FOR THE GENERAL POPULATION GROUP

 The exercise programme should be tailored to meet the client's specific needs and goals

 The Personal Trainer should not impose his/her own exercise preferences on the client

 Health screening and fitness evaluations must be considered when planning a programme

 Equipment availability and facility options influence where training will take place, i.e. home,
health club, corporate setting, etc.

 The personal trainer must take on the role of educator, ensuring the client is working at the
correct level and understands the dangers of over-training

 Vigorous activity must always be preceded by an appropriate lead in time (warm-up) and
followed by cardiac declining activity (cool-down)

 Personal trainers should be creative, using a variety of different exercise modalities

 Provide appropriate rest or recuperation intervals, depending on training intensity/duration and

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client's level of conditioning

 Concise time frames should be set for the different components of fitness, bearing in mind the
concept of training specificity

The personal trainer should not step outside his/her scope of expertise when it comes to the interpretation of medical
terms. Never diagnose potential injuries or illnesses that require the opinion of a medical expert.

2.6 SAMPLE CASE STUDY

The following case study is not meant to be completely exhaustive of all information concerning programme design
and implementation, but serves as a guide only.

Explanation must be given as to why specific recommendations are made, bearing in mind individual needs, physical
condition, etc. and how the prescribed exercise programme is intended to achieve the client’s specified goals.

Sex Female (Age 28)

Blood pressure 110/60

Body-fat 26%

Resting heart rate 72

Smoker No

Flexibility Tight lower back and hamstrings

Musculo-skeletal Mild Scoliosis

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Physician clearance

Because of low blood pressure and signs of scoliosis, the client was referred to her physician. She was cleared for all
forms of exercise, but it was advised that care must be taken when lifting weights and when rising from the prone/or
supine position.

Additional information

The client has been involved in exercise over the last few years, but attendance was sporadic.

Goals

The client’s main goal is to lose weight. After further consultation it is decided that the client would like to reduce her
body-fat percentage to 22% and maintain her body-fat loss through a healthy eating plan within 6 months.

Specific reduce body-fat percentage to 22%

Measurable with callipers

Appropriate Her fat percentage is above the norm of 20%

Realistic Yes, a 6% loss in 6 months is realistic and she has exercised before

Time 3 months

FITT principle in the description above

Frequency 3 times a week

Intensity Target heart rate (140-160) and 2 x 10-15 reps

Time 70 minutes

Type Cardiovascular, flexibility and muscular strength/endurance

Initial Workout Routine

WARM-UP

Start with joint rotations to increase the secretion of synovial fluid within the joints to ease movement. Followed by
cardiovascular warm-up on cardiovascular equipment such as the stationary cycle with little or no resistance (5-10
minutes or until the start of perspiration). Dynamic stretches follow to activate the neural system (5 -10 repetitions,
2-3 sets). Static stretches can be done for muscles that lack range of motion or were previously injured.
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MAIN-SET

Exercise/Machine Muscle Group Intensity Reps Sets Rest

(%1RM) (seconds)

Horizontal leg press Quadriceps, gluteal 65-67 12-14 2 20-30

Hip extension Hamstring, gluteal 65 15 2 20-30

Leg curl Hamstrings 65-67 12-14 2 20-30

Seated chest press Triceps, pectorals, anterior 65-67 12-14 2 2 -30

deltoid
Seated vertical row Latissimus, biceps 65-67 12-14 2 20-30

Lying French press Triceps 65-67 12-14 2 20-30

Biceps curl Biceps 65-67 12-14 2 20-30

Partial trunk curls Rectus abdominis 65-67 12-14 2 20-30

Seated back machine Erector spine 65-67 12-14 2 20-30

CARDIOVASCULAR
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To improve cardiovascular fitness, perform any cardiovascular exercise (treadmill) for a duration of 15 – 20 minutes
at an intensity of 70 – 80% of heart rate maximum.

COOL-DOWN

Reduce the speed on the aerobic equipment during a 5 minute cardiovascular cool-down. Then follow with static
stretches of all muscle groups trained during the session. PNF stretching can be included if the trainer has knowledge
of this stretching technique.

Programme Variables and Special Considerations

Cardiovascular considerations:

The client's initial 20-minute aerobic workout on the treadmill can be increased at a rate of 2 minutes every workout
because of her desire to reduce fat weight. It should be suggested to the client that she should try to perform her
aerobic workout 4 to 5 times per week and build up to 45-50 minutes.

It is essential for the trainer to obtain the necessary dietary information from the client in order to help modify her diet
and assist in achieving fat loss.

The weekly schedule initially prescribed may be modified according to the client's needs and level of motivation.

Strength Training Considerations:

Mild scoliosis may inhibit her ability to perform overhead lifts and compression-form movements such as shoulder
presses with dumbbells or squats. The trainer should prescribe alternate exercises such as lateral dumbbell raises for
the deltoids and gravity neutral horizontal leg presses for the quadriceps. The resistance-training component should
follow the progressive overload principle until maintenance level intensities are achieved.

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CONCLUSION

A programme should focus on improving the client’s weaknesses and maintaining his/her strengths. Each client is
unique with different weaknesses and strengths making it vital for the trainer to know the client’s individual needs
and the training required to improve each component of fitness. A progressive approach should be taken when
designing exercise programmes.
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CHAPTER 3:
ELECTIVE - SAFETY
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This module is designed to provide knowledge and skills that will enable the student to
design exercise programmes away from the traditional gym setting.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

Design a safe and effective ‘outdoor’, sports-specific exercise programme that

is appropriate to the needs and goals of the sport and takes into account
individual modifications and adaptations (for individual athletes and teams.)
The programme should include: general and specific warm-up, technique or
tactical drills, speed and coordination drills, muscular resistance training
(compound and isolation activities), cardiovascular exercises and cool-down
activities.
The trainer should make creative use of the environment and objects within it
to increase the intensity of exercises and add variety to the programme.

This module should take you approximately 65 hours of self-study.

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INTRODUCTION
HEALTH AND SAFETY

The health and safety Act (85 of 1993) requires employers and persons who are in charge of work premises to maintain
the workplace in an efficient state. Singh (2006) stated that this implies that facilities must be kept in good repair and
in total working order. The regulations cover matters such as ventilation, lighting, cleanliness, temperature, traffic
routes, sanitary conveniences, facilities for rest, changing and showering, first aid (see Appendix A), emergency
equipment and procedures, personal safety equipment and safety policy requirements for employers.

3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

When designing an exercise programme that will take place outside the traditional gym environment, the following
should be considered:

 The larger natural environment

 The immediate environment
 Other considerations related to the environment

3.1.1 The larger, natural environment

3.1.1.1 Environmental factors

 Participants should be reminded to protect themselves from exposure to sun by wearing

sunscreen or a hat.

 Exercising for long periods in the sun could lead to dehydration, therefore, care should be taken
to ensure that participant’s re-hydrate with sufficient fluids. Participants should have access to
water.

 Participants should be reminded to dress warmly in cold conditions, layering their clothing to
allow for items to be removed progressively as body temperature increases.

 Training sessions should not be conducted in highly polluted areas, e.g. field close to heavy
traffic.

 Training sessions should not take place during electric storms (lightning).

An ideal environment would have the following characteristics:

 Pathways and grass to cater for personal preference and wet weather

 Large open spaces to allow for numerous activities

 A range of slopes and hills

 Landmarks such as trees and benches for setting targets and to be used in muscle conditioning
exercises, e.g. calf stretch using a tree or triceps dips using the bench.

Personal safety is imperative and thus all participants must be reminded of the following guidelines:

 Walk with a partner or in group

 Let someone know the route you will be taking and when you expect to be back
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 Know the route you are using; becoming lost could make you vulnerable
 Avoid walking in the dark

 Never carry valuables and remove all jewellery

 Be purposeful and confident – look as though you know where you are going

 Look for safe spots in case of an emergency, e.g. a garage, shops etc.

 Trust your instincts

3.1.2 The immediate environment

3.1.2.1 Facilities

 Permission should be granted to use the facilities; this includes parks and fields.

 The facility should not endanger participants in any way.

 Facilities must be used in a safe manner i.e. ‘the safest facility can be turned into an unsafe
environment because of the way human traffic is routed through it’ (Singh, 2006, p.1).

 Protruding structures should be covered and padded and obstructions should be visibly taped
off.
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 Entrances and exits should be checked and controlled throughout the training session.

 Ensure that the area has been checked for hazards thoroughly before conducting each session.

 All participants should be made aware of basic emergency procedures in case of evacuations or
accidents.

 The surface should be free of obstacles and checked for any slippery patches.

 The toilet facilities should be easily accessible and within walking distance of the training area.

 The toilets and changing areas should be thoroughly cleaned before and after all training
sessions; toilet paper and soap must be supplied.

→ An alternative indoor facility should be available to be used in wet and cold weather.

3.1.2.2 Use of limited space

The space chosen for training sessions should be free of distractions. Distraction leads to injury. It is important
to ensure that each individual has sufficient working space - individual space should allow for each person to take
2 large steps in all directions with arms outstretched. Keep in mind all safety aspects such as obstructions or
furniture, temperature, height of ceiling and floor surface.

Exercise can be done using limited space. In this manual we have included examples of training sessions that can
be done in an office, bedroom or a small garden - the participant would only require a space of 9m2.

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3.1.2.3 Surfaces

 Ensure that the surfaces are safe to use and suitable for the activity to be undertaken.

 Grounds should be inspected daily for holes, uneven areas and debris.

 Any dangerous material should be removed immediately.

 The correct footwear must be used for the appropriate surfaces.

3.1.2.4 Equipment

 Whether equipment is being set up or taken down, the manufacturer’s instructions and
guidelines should be followed. These guidelines may show the following:

 How the equipment is assembled and taken down

 How to lift and handle the equipment properly
 How to check it is working safely
 How to ensure the site is safe to position the equipment or apparatus
 How and where it is stored after use

 Equipment needs maintenance. Records should be kept of any damage, missing parts and
incorrect operation of equipment. Proper handling and care of equipment and facilities helps to
reduce wear and tear.

 All repairs to equipment should be made by a qualified, responsible person.

 Ensure that equipment is placed in suitable, safe surroundings.

 Make sure the equipment is the correct size for the participant.

 Appropriate supervision is essential throughout the session.

 A written checklist of apparatus and equipment should be drawn up.

 Participants should have access to a place to store their equipment or clothing or should be
advised otherwise.

 A small backpack is useful for carrying water, sunglasses, sunscreen, snacks and items of
clothing.

3.1.3 Other considerations

3.1.3.1 Suitable clothing

 Functional clothing protects against wind and simultaneously aids in the release of surplus body
heat. These clothes act as a temperature regulator: excess heat evaporates for a cooling effect
and the skin stays dry and comfortably warm.

 Participants should layer clothing so that they can relieve themselves one layer after the other.
The clothing should let the body breathe.
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 Wearing of hats and sweatbands can help protect participants from the sun and prevent heat
loss. Gloves can also be worn in winter.

 A rain jacket of light breathable material should be worn in wet weather.

 A reflective vest should be worn in poor weather conditions especially if walking is to be done
on the road.

 Shoes are very important and should be chosen carefully. The American Physical Therapy
Association gave the following recommendations:

 The insole should match the arch of the foot

 The sole should be made from a foam material for cushioning and it should bend at the forefoot
rather than the mid foot.
 The heel should be made from a foam material to provide shock absorption.
 Breathable materials such as leather and cotton canvas are preferable to synthetics or plastic.
 The toe box should provide plenty of wiggle room for the toes in both depth and width.
 The heel grip should hold the heel snugly in place. A padded cuff at the top opening may provide
a firmer grip and cause less friction on the skin.

 Socks should be worn to prevent blisters and athletes foot. Socks must be well fitted and made
of synthetic fibre that will dry quickly. Thick socks can provide additional protection for the foot.
Ankle socks may rub against the Achilles tendon causing a blister. It is important to remind
participants to carry an extra pair of socks especially in wet weather.
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3.1.3.2 Route planning

 The route for walking should be safe and all precautions should be taken to avoid the
endangerment of participants.

 All participants should wear reflective vests and be supervised by competent staff members.

 The ratio of staff to participants should be at least 1:15, however it is important to note that all
participants should be within at least 100m of the staff member. Therefore different levels of
participants walking a route will need more staff members for supervision, e.g. a staff member
at the front with fitter members, a staff member in the middle and a staff member at the back.

3.2 LEGAL AND INSURANCE ISSUES

3.2.1 Public liability insurance

This insures against any legal liability to compensate a member of the public for injury or loss sustained by them on
the insured’s premises, as a result of the failure of the insured and/or its staff to ensure that the premises and
equipment are safe for use by the public.

In South Africa the application for personal indemnity insurance gives an option that includes public liability insurance.
Many gyms and workplaces insist that instructors hold this insurance.

In the USA this type of claim is referred to as “general negligence” and the applicable insurance cover as general
liability insurance.

In the UK this type of public liability insurance, whilst not a compulsory insurance, can be a lifeline for any company or
individual should an incident occur with a member of the public under their care or in their premises. Ideal for any
individual or company working with the public, or where the public visit a company’s premises, public liability
insurance

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ensures that the company or individual is covered should an accident occur to a member of the public on their premises.
Further to this, public liability insurance also covers any accidents or incidents that may occur when the individual or
company is carrying work at customer’s premises. Public liability insurance is highly recommended for anyone carrying
out work in the UK with the public. It should be remembered that public liability insurance only covers claims from third
parties and not company employees.

3.2.2 Code of ethical practice

It is imperative that you read the documentation provided in appendix B and examine the implications for your practice
in training in different environments. Look carefully at the aspects on creating ethical relationships.

Two examples of codes of ethical practice have been included:

1. www.ereps.eu
2. http://www.repssa.com/ethics

The South African Fitness board is in the process of being established. This Board would have a Code of Ethical Practice.

Also see Appendix C – SASCOC code of conduct

3.2.3 Risk assessments

→ It is imperative that participants complete a PAR-Q before engaging in a training

session.

 This assessment should screen for high blood pressure, cardiac risk, diabetes, asthma, obesity
and injury.

 Blood pressure should be checked and the value recorded on the participant’s assessment form.

 An informed consent form must be completed and signed.

 All documentation must be kept in a file so that all information is accessible in an emergency
situation.
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APPENDIX A: RECOMMENDED FIRST AID KIT

2 x CPR Mouthpieces (Life Aids / Resussi – Aids)

4 x Pairs disposable Latex Gloves
1 x 100 ml Wound Cleaner
1 x Pouch Sterile Gauze Swabs 75 mm x 75 mm
1 x Packet Gauze Swabs 50 mm x 50 mm
1 x Packet Waterproof Plaster Strips (min 10)
1 x Fabric Adhesive Strip 25 mm x 3 mm
1 x Hypo-Allergic Strip 24 mm x 3mm
2 x Roller Bandages 75 mm x 4,5 m
2 x Roller Bandages 100 mm x 4,5 m
4 x Triangular Bandages
1 x First Aid Scissors
1 x Tweezers
1 x Card Safety Pins
2 x First Aid Dressings 74 mm x 100 mm
2 x Shell Dressings 150 mm x 200 mm
2 x Crepe Bandages 50 mm x 4,5 m
2 x Crepe Bandages 75 mm x 4,5 m
2 x Crepe Bandages 100 mm x 4,5 m
1 x Adjustable Cervical Collar
2 x Straight Wooden Splints
1 x Mercurochrome 20 ml
20 x Paracetamol Tablets
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1 x Eye Drops
1 x Deep heat / Voltaren / Reparil Gel / Fastum
1 x Glucogel
1 x Cup
1 x Freeze Spray / 3 x Instant Ice Packs
1 x Box Tissues
1 x Paper Bags

OPTIONAL EXTRAS
1 x Blanket
1 x Pillow
1 x Stretcher
1 x Spine Board
1 x Burn Spray
5 x Enos Sachets
1 x Valoid Tablets for Nausea
1 x Pectrolyte Solution for Diarrhoea

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APPENDIX B: REPS Code of Conduct

WWW.REPSSA.COM – Code of Ethical Conduct

CODE OF ETHICAL CONDUCT
As part of its objectives REPs aims to ensure that exercise professionals who are registered on REPs
should both establish and maintain proper standards of ethical and professional conduct when providing
services in fitness instruction.

As such, those registered with REPs are expected to adhere to the Code of Ethical Conduct.
Physical activity and exercise can contribute positively to the development of individuals. It is a vehicle for physical,
mental, personal, social and emotional development. Such development is enhanced if the individual is guided by an
informed, thinking, aspiring and enlightened exercise professional operating within an accepted ethical framework as
a professional.

The role of an exercise professional is to:

Identify and meet the needs of individuals
Improve performance or fitness through programmes of safe, effective and enjoyable exercise
Create an environment in which individuals are motivated to maintain participation and improve performance or
fitness
Conform to a Code of Ethical Conduct in a number of areas – rights, relationships, personal responsibilities,
professional standards, safe working practise.

This Code of Ethical Conduct (the Code) defines good practice for professionals in the fitness industry by reflecting on
the core values of rights, relationships, responsibilities, standards and safety. The term 'professional' is used in a
qualitative context in this Code and does not necessarily imply a paid position or person. The Code applies to both
employed and self-employed professionals but where professionals are employed the Register accepts that employed
exercise professionals will be subject to the codes of practice and employment rules of their employers and will, in
determining compliance with this Code of Ethical Conduct, have careful regard to any such employment rules and in
particular whether or not, in the case of any complaint being made the professional concerned has or will be subject
to any internal investigation by his or her employers.

Exercise professionals on REPs accept their responsibility to people who participate in exercise; to other exercise
professionals and colleagues; to their respective fitness associations, professional bodies and institutes; to their
employer; and to society. When practising, registrants must also hold adequate liability insurance.

There are five principles to the REPs Code of Ethical Conduct.

Principle 1: Rights
'Exercise professionals should deal openly and in a transparent manner with their clients. They should
at all times adopt the highest degree of professionalism in dealing with their clients' needs.'

Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to maintain a standard of professional conduct
appropriate to their dealings with all client groups and to responsibly demonstrate:
Respect for individual difference and diversity.
Good practice in challenging discrimination and unfairness.
Discretion in dealing with confidential client disclosure.
As part of these principles members registered with REPs should seek to ensure that the contractual arrangements
they have with their client are clear, transparent and unambiguous. Although REPs cannot and will not seek to
adjudicate or deal with private contractual disputes (which should be dealt with by members and their clients) REPs
will nevertheless seek to ensure that Exercise Professionals do maintain a proper regard to dealing with and addressing
concerns raised by their clients. If a dispute shall arise between a member of the public and member registered with
REPS the member of the public shall in the first instance seek to resolve that dispute with the REPs member. Only if
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that matter cannot be resolved or the dispute reveals a lack of proper professional conduct would REPs seek to
intervene to correct any lack of professionalism shown. REPs itself has no jurisdiction to actually resolve such a dispute.

Principle 2: Relationships
'Exercise professionals will seek to nurture healthy relationships with their customers and other health
professionals'

Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to develop and maintain a relationship with customers
based on openness, honesty, mutual trust and respect and to responsibly demonstrate:
Awareness of the requirement to place the customer's needs as a priority and promote their welfare and best interests
first when planning an appropriate training programme.
Clarity in all forms of communication with customers, professional colleagues and medical practitioners, ensuring
honesty, accuracy and cooperation when seeking agreements and avoiding misrepresentation or any conflict of interest
arising between customers' and own professional obligations.
Integrity as an exercise professional and recognition of the position of trust dictated by that role, ensuring avoidance
of inappropriate behaviour in customer relationships. Any consensual relationship between persons of full age would
not, however, be considered inappropriate.

Principle 3: Personal Responsibilities

'Exercise professionals will demonstrate and promote a responsible lifestyle and conduct'

Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to conduct proper personal behaviour at all times and to
responsibly demonstrate:
The high standards of professional conduct appropriate to their dealings with all their client groups and which reflect
the particular image and expectations relevant to the role of the exercise professional working in the fitness industry.
An understanding of their legal responsibilities and accountability when dealing with the public and awareness of the
need for honesty and accuracy in substantiating their claims of authenticity when promoting their services in the public
domain.
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An absolute duty of care to be aware of their working environment and to be able to deal with all reasonably
foreseeable accidents and emergencies – and to protect themselves, their colleagues and clients.

Principle 4: Professional Standards

'Exercise professionals will seek to adopt the highest level of professional standards in their work and
the development of their career'

Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to commit to the attainment of appropriate qualifications
and ongoing training to responsibly demonstrate:
Engagement in actively seeking to update knowledge and improve their professional skills in order to maintain a
quality standard of service, reflecting on their own practice, identifying development needs and undertaking relevant
development activities.
Willingness to accept responsibility and be accountable for professional decisions or actions, welcome evaluation of
their work and recognise the need when appropriate to refer to another professional specialist.
A personal responsibility to maintain their own effectiveness and confine themselves to practice those activities for
which their training and competence is recognised by the Register.

Principle 5: Safe Working Practise

'Exercise professionals will systematically prepare for all activities ensuring the safety of their clients is
of paramount consideration'

Compliance with this principle requires exercise professionals to maintain a safe exercise environment for all clients
and at all times and to responsibly demonstrate:
A responsible attitude to the care and safety of client participants within the training environment and in planned
activities ensuring that both are appropriate to the needs of the clients.
An appropriate ratio of instructors to clients within any group sessions to ensure that at all times the safety of all
clients is paramount.
All clients have been systematically prepared for the activity in terms of safety including the safe use of equipment.

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Disciplinary Measures
In the event that the Board shall find that a person registered shall be guilty of a breach of The Code,
The
Board of REPSSA may take Disciplinary action.

Any alleged professional mis-conduct or avoidance of compliance with the terms of membership of the Register will be
referred to the Board which will consider any need for sanctions against an individual instructor, coach, trainer or
teacher. The appropriate authority(ies) will deal with any criminal allegations.

In terms of any disciplinary action taken REPs may after due inquiry:
Suspend or terminate the membership of any member;
Reprimand or issue a formal warning; or
Take such other action as REPs consider an appropriate and proportionate to the issues raised.
In the event that any party to an alleged mis-conduct is dissatisfied with a decision of the Board he or she may lodge
an appeal in writing against this decision to the Chairman of REPSSA. Please see the appeals process for details.
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APPENDIX C: PHYSICAL ACTIVITY READINESS QUESTIONNAIRE

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APPENDIX D: SASCOC CODE OF CONDUCT

1. PREAMBLE:

This code of conduct indicates the standard of behaviour expected of a member of an association. It is a formal
statement of the values and ethical standards that guide individuals in sport. It is a set of principles, and norms
to which sporting people can be held accountable when representing South Africa at any sporting event. This
can also be used as a point of reference when dealing with disciplinary procedures against members

2. INTRODUCTION:

With the number of bad behaviours and illegal actions we have experienced in sport in the past, a mechanism
on how to eliminate these actions has been sought. This is why a code of conduct has been drawn up to hold
all sports persons accountable for their actions.

3. VALUES STATEMENT:

The Purpose of this code is:

3.1. To outline incorrect and unacceptable actions/behaviours within sport and to encourage ethical behaviour
within sport, so that when the code is contravened the appropriate disciplinary action can with
consistency be taken, thus responding to offences and preventing re-occurrence.

3.2. To help to resolve conflict.

3.3. To make ethical behaviour infringement easy to identify.

3.4. To enhance the ethical reputation of sports persons.

3.5. To promote respect for human dignity, rights and social justice.

3.6. Provide a framework for all sporting persons to conduct their sporting activities according to the following
ethical principles:

3.6.1. Respect the rights, dignity and worth of every human being

3.6.2. Being fair, considerate, honest and respect for the law.

3.6.3. Being trustworthy and professional, accepting responsibilities for their action.

3.6.4. Refraining from any racial, gender, verbal, physical or emotional abuse or harassment.

3.6.5. Always making a positive contribution and refraining from destructive criticism.

3.6.6. Always acting in the interest of South African sport.

4. APPLICABILITY:

4.1. The code shall apply to any and all participants/players who participate / attend any competition/event,
which is held under the auspices of the relevant National Federation, or any of the associations, which
are members of, or affiliated to the relevant federation.

4.2. The code shall apply to any administrator involved in the administration of the relevant sport at any level
within South Africa and who thereby falls under the auspices of that relevant National federation.
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4.3. The code shall apply to any coach involved in coaching a team/individual for any event/competition,
which falls under the auspices of the National Federation.

4.4. The code shall apply to any technical official involved in officiating or training at any event/competition
which falls under the auspices of the National Federation

5. SUCCESS OF A CODE OF CONDUCT

This code of conduct can only be successful if:

5.1. The athletes, officials, coaches and administrators familiarize themselves with the content of the Code.

5.2. National federations and macro-bodies frequently refer to the Code of Conduct for guidance.

5.3. The code of ethics is included/captured in the national federation’s rules/constitution and SASC colour
regulations.

5.4. Anyone who fails to conform their conduct to the following code of conduct they will be subject to
disciplinary action according to their relevant federation’s constitution or disciplinary procedures.

6. BEFORE GOING AGAINST THE CODE OF CONDUCT A PERSON SHOULD ASK THE FOLLOWING
QUESTIONS:

6.1. Is it legal and constitutional?

6.2. What does the code of conduct say?

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6.3. How would it look in tomorrow’s newspaper?

6.4. Does it comply with the federation’s rules and regulations?

6.5. How does it make me feel?

6.6. Is it against the federations or professional standards?

6.7. Will it reflect negatively on my federation or me?

6.8. Whom else this could affect?

6.9. Would I be embarrassed if others knew I took this course of action?

6.10. Is there an alternative action that does not pose an ethical conflict?

6.11. What would a reasonable person think?

6.12. Can I sleep at night?

7. ADMINISTRATORS

I pledge to:

7.1. Do my best to ensure that all athletes are given an equal opportunity to participate, regardless of gender,
ability or ethnic background.

7.2. Discourage any sport program from becoming primarily an entertainment for the spectators.

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7.3. Ensure that all equipment and facilities are safe and appropriate to the athlete’s ages and abilities.

7.4. Make sure that the age and maturity levels of the children are considered in program development, rule
enforcement and scheduling.

7.5. Remember that participation is done for the athletes own sake and ensure that winning is kept in
perspective.

7.6. Ensure that the code of ethics / fairplay is distributed, understood and agreed upon by, coaches, athletes,
and officials.

7.7. Ensure that coaches and officials are capable of promoting fair play as well as the development of good
technical skills, and encourage them to become certified.

7.8. Promote and develop the game by sharing knowledge and experience.

7.9. Administer all issues relating to the sport in the best interest of the sport and not for my personal gain.

7.10. Educate and ensure high standards of risk management are maintained.

7.11. Educate athletes to respect other cultures and beliefs.

7.12. Keep athletes and officials updated on protocol of other countries where they may compete.

7.13. Conform to my federation’s code of conduct.

7.14. Show common courtesy towards participants/players, other administrators, coaches, spectators,
technical officials, press and sponsors.

7.15. No administrator shall at any time give, make, issue, authorize or endorse any public statement which
will have or design to have, an effect prejudicial or detrimental to the best interest of the National
Federations or sport in general

8. PLAYERS/PARTICIPANTS

I will:

8.1. Respect the rules and play in the spirit of the game.

8.2. Display high standards of behaviour that promote a positive image for the game.

8.3. Respect my opponents.

8.4. Respect the officials and their decisions.

8.5. Be gracious in victory and defeat and remember that winning isn’t everything.

8.6. Give my team-mates positive inputs and feedback.

8.7. Compete fairly.

8.8. Refrain from the use of profane, insulting, harassing or otherwise offensive language or behaviour on or
off the field.

8.9. Strive to maintain a sense of self-control and dignity at all times.

8.10. Thank officials and opposing teams after every game/match.

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8.11. Remember to maintain a sense of integrity.

8.12. Respect the facilities/equipments.

8.13. Do my best to try to be a true team player.

8.14. Never advocate or condone the use of drugs or other banned performance enhancing substances.

8.15. Reject corruption, drugs, racism, violence and other dangers to the sport.

8.16. Help others to resist corrupting pressures.

8.17. Denounce those who attempt to discredit the sport.

8.18. Honour those who defend the sports good reputation.

8.19. To the best of my ability abstain from the use of tobacco products and alcoholic beverages in public
when representing my country.

8.20. Never provide under age participants with alcohol.

8.21. Participate in all team testing and satisfy all team program-testing objectives. (Drug and High
Performance)

8.22. Communicate and co-operate with registered medical practitioners/testing centre in the diagnoses,
treatment and management of medical problems and respect the concerns of these medical people have
when they are considering my future health and well being and when they are making decisions
regarding my ability to continue to play or train.
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8.23. Respect other athletes and officials cultures and beliefs.

8.24. Conform to my federation’s code of conduct.

8.25. Show common courtesy towards administrators, coaches, spectators, technical officials, press and
sponsors.

8.26. No player/participant shall at any time give, make, issue, authorize or endorse any public statement
which will have or design to have, an effect prejudicial or detrimental to the best interest of the National
Federations or sport in general

9. TECHNICAL OFFICIALS

I will:

9.1. Make sure that every athlete has a reasonable opportunity to perform to the best of his or her ability,
within the limits of the rules.

9.2. Avoid or put an end to any situation that threatens the safety of the athletes.

9.3. Strive to maintain a healthy atmosphere and environment for competition.

9.4. Not tolerate unacceptable conduct toward officials, athletes, spectators or myself.

9.5. Be consistent and objective in calling all infractions, regardless of my personal feelings toward a team or
individual athlete.

9.6. Handle all conflicts firmly but with dignity.

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9.7. Accept my role as a teacher and role model for fair play.

9.8. Be open to discussion and contact with the athletes before and after the game.

9.9. Remain open to constructive criticism and show respect and consideration for different points of view.

9.10. Obtain proper training and continue to upgrade my officiating skills.

9.11. Consistently display high personal standards and project a favourable image of the sport and officiating.

9.12. Uphold the international standards.

9.13. To the best of my ability abstain from the use of tobacco products and alcoholic beverages in public
when officiating and working with officials and athletes.

9.14. Refrain from the use of profane, insulting, harassing or otherwise offensive language or behaviour in the
conduct of my duties.

9.15. Never advocate or condone the use of drugs or other banned substances.

9.16. Conform to my federation’s code of conduct.

9.17. Show common courtesy towards participants/players, administrators, coaches, spectators, other
technical officials, press and sponsors.

9.18. No technical official shall at any time give, make, issue, authorize or endorse any public statement which
will have or design to have, an effect prejudicial or detrimental to the best interest of the National
Federations or sport in general

10. COACHES

I will:

10.1. Treat everyone fairly within the context of his or her activity, regardless of gender, place of origin, colour,
sex, religion, political belief or economic status.

10.2. Ensure that confidentiality of players is maintained.

10.3. Teach the athletes how to manage conflict and stress and use good judgment in tough situations.

10.4. Be generous with praise and give the team positive inputs and feedback.

10.5. Encourage a constructive attitude toward competitions.

10.6. Provide an equal opportunity for all to learn skills and further themselves.

10.7. Encourage individuals to continue their participation in sport.

10.8. Be reasonable when scheduling games and practices.

10.9. Teach athletes to play fairly and to respect the rules, officials and opponents.

10.10. Ensure that all athletes get equal instruction, support and playing time

10.11. Not ridicule or yell at my athletes for making mistakes or for performing poorly.

10.12. Within the limits of my control I will make sure that equipment and facilities are safe and match the
athlete’s ages and abilities.
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10.13. Remember that athletes need a coach they can respect and thereby set a good example.

10.14. Obtain the proper training and continue to upgrade my coaching skills.

10.15. Refrain from public criticism of fellow coaches, athletes, officials and volunteers especially when
addressing the media.

10.16. Communicate and co-operate with registered medical practitioners in the diagnoses, treatment and
management of the athlete’s medical and psychological problems.

10.17. Consider the athlete’s future health and well being as foremost when making decisions regarding an
injured athletes ability to continue playing or training.

10.18. Recognize and accept when to refer athletes to another coach or sport specialist, allow the athletes goals
to take precedence over my personal goals.

10.19. At no time become intimately and/or sexually involved with any athlete.

10.20. Never advocate or condone the use of drugs or other banned performance enhancing substances.

10.21. Never provide under age athletes with alcohol, or encourage its use.

10.22. To the best of my ability abstain from the use of tobacco products and alcoholic beverages in public
when officiating and in the presence of the athletes.

10.23. Refrain from the use of profane, insulting, harassing or otherwise offensive language or behaviour in the
conduct of my duties.
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10.24. In the case of minors, communicate and co-operate with the athlete’s parents or legal guardians,
involving them in management decisions pertaining to their child’s development.

10.25. Conform to my federation’s code of conduct.

10.26. Show common courtesy towards participants/players, administrators, spectators, technical

officials, other coaches, press and sponsors.

10.27. No coach shall at any time give, make, issue, authorize or endorse any public statement which
will have or design to have, an effect prejudicial or detrimental to the best interest of the
National Federations or sport in general.

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CHAPTER 4: ELECTIVE
TRAINING IN DIFFERENT
ENVIRONMENTS
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OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

Design an exercise programme for a sportsman, relative

to the needs of the sport.
Design a programme for a client(s) to take place in an
environment other than a gym.
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INTRODUCTION
4.1 PLANNING A SAFE AND EFFECTIVE PROGRAMME USING SMALL PORTABLE EQUIPMENT

There are a number of factors a personal trainer must consider when planning an exercise programme:

 Participant’s current health status

 Participant’s needs and goals
 The equipment and space available
 The FITT principles (frequency, intensity, time and type)
 SAID principle
 Components of fitness
 Progression

Designing a safe and effective programme requires serious consideration of these factors as well as ensuring that
the participants ENJOY their exercise or training session.

As a personal trainer you may want to set up your equipment as a circuit in which each participant does a
different exercise for a specified time or you could have all participants using resistance bands suited to their
individual strength.

During your practical training on this course you will be given a number of opportunities to plan exercise
programmes and train participants. Your tutor will demonstrate and give you feedback on your progress.

The primary aim of this Module is that on completion you will feel competent and confident to prepare a
programme and train participants.

4.2 PROGRAMME LAYOUT

The programme should be structured to facilitate optimal muscular function during the main set of the
programme. See the guidelines below on how to structure an exercise session:

4.2.1 Basic Programme Layout

STEP 1: Identify a safe exercise environment - refer to the guidelines provided in Chapter 1 to ensure the
environment is safe and large enough in which to train your clients.

STEP 2: Identify which objects in the environment can add additional intensity/resistance to your programme.
Examples are obstacles you may find in your exercise environment including: rocks, bricks, stairs, tables, tyres,
etc.

Examples:
Rocks/bricks can be used to add weight to traditional exercises:
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Single arm shoulder press

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Front raises
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Weighted squat

Wood chops

Curtsy lunge

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Front obstacle jumps

Steps can add a dynamic element to traditional exercises:

Step-ups

Tables can also add additional weight to traditional exercises:

Weighted squat

STEP 3: Design the programme

STEP 3.1: Warm-up

The warm-up must prepare the body physically and mentally for the main workout. The warm-up should include:
mobility exercises for the joints; pulse raising exercises to warm the muscles; exercises to adapt the cardio-
respiratory system for exercise; skill rehearsal and preparatory stretches to lengthen the muscles.

The body adapts physiologically to each aspect of the warm up in a specific way. Find a suitable space where the
client(s) can perform each part of the warm-up.
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Rotational exercises:

Promote the release of synovial fluid into the joint capsule and thus ensure that joints are lubricated and
cushioned.

Shoulder rotations

Wrist rotations
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Shoulder rotations

Torso rotations

Ankle rotations

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Pulse raising/ cardiovascular exercises:

 Increase heart rate, blood flow and delivery of oxygen to the muscles
 Increase body temperature and warmth
 Increase muscle pliability
 Activate neuromuscular pathways by focusing attention and concentration
Examples:

Walking

Running

Stepping

Mobility exercises/dynamic stretches:

Warm the tendons, muscles and ligaments around the joints so that a fuller range of motion can be achieved at
each joint.
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Examples:

Marching

Walking lunges with lateral flexion

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Heel-to-toe walk

Static stretches (only muscles that lack range of motion):

 Lengthen the muscle and range of motion

 Promote more effective contraction
 Reduce the risk of injury

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Examples:

Chest stretch Shoulder stretch Triceps stretch

Quadriceps stretch Upper back stretch Hamstring stretch

Gluteal stretch Adductor stretch Calf stretch

STEP 3.2: Main set

Perform complex high intensity activities first such as power/explosive exercises then progress to non-power
compound exercises and lastly isolation exercises.

Power/explosive exercises:

Power exercises are a great way to provide additional resistance when access to conventional gym equipment is
not available and body weight does not provide enough resistance. The speed at which these exercises are
performed provides additional intensity/resistance and increases the total amount of work done, facilitating greater
energy expenditure and weight loss, as well as neuromuscular functionality.
Not all clients are at the required fitness level or possess the required skills and technique to perform explosive
movements, but, if your client has a good strength base, consider including explosive exercises in the
programme.
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Examples:

Lateral obstacle jump

Jump onto ‘box’

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Obstacle jump

Compound exercises:

Compound exercises involve a number of muscle groups and require greater energy expenditure than isolation
exercises. In order to ensure optimal force application, perform compound exercises before isolation exercises.
Identify 2-4 compound exercises to include in the session.
Examples:

Squat with overhead press

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Lateral lunge with upright row

Reverse lunge

Stadium lunges

Modified burpee

Walking overhead lunges

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Isolation exercises:

Isolation exercises involve isolating and focusing on developing a particular muscle group. Identify 6-8 exercises
each isolating quadriceps, chest, hamstrings, upper back, shoulders, lower back, triceps, biceps, and abdominals.

Types of compound and isolation exercises:

Bodyweight exercises:

Bodyweight exercises are strength-training exercises that do not require free weights; the exerciser’s own weight
provides the resistance for the movement. Movements such as the push-up, the pull-up and the sit-up are some
of the most common bodyweight exercises.

Advantages:

Bodyweight exercises are the ideal choice for individuals who do not have access to strength-training equipment.
Weights can be incorporated to increase the intensity of most bodyweight exercises. Some exercises require some
sort of apparatus to lean on or hang from, but the majority of bodyweight exercises require only a floor. For those
exercises that do require equipment of some kind, a substitute can usually be improvised, for example a strong
tree branch to perform pull-ups.

Disadvantages:

Bodyweight exercises use the exerciser’s own weight to provide resistance. This means that the weight lifted is
always the same. This makes it difficult for less experienced athletes to achieve a level of intensity that is near
their one rep maximum - which is desirable for strength training. Other methods to increase intensity include the
use of additional weights (such as wearing a weighted vest or holding a barbell or plate during a sit up) or by
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altering the exercise to put one's self at a leverage disadvantage (such as elevating the feet or using only one hand
when executing a push-up). Gymnasts make extensive use of this last technique a mechanically disadvantaged
position. Instead of a bilateral movement, such as a two-handed pull-up, the exerciser may decide, for strength
increases, to choose a set of exercises that include the one-arm pull up (unilateral movements).

Methods to alter intensity of body weight - compound or isolation exercises:

Resistance provided by the body weight might not be appropriate when performing own body weight compound
or isolation exercises. (e.g. if the client is not strong enough to push his/her own weight in a push-up). This can
negatively affect technique and increase risk of injury. On the other hand, the client might require additional
resistance - for example, when body weight is not taxing the lower body muscles enough when performing body
weight squats, which in turn does not facilitate muscular growth.

Refer to the objects identified in STEP 2 and incorporate means to adjust the resistance. For example, push-ups
against a tree to reduce the resistance or squats holding a heavy rock to add resistance to the exercise.

Alternatively the trainer can incorporate light, easy to carry, portable equipment to increase exercise intensity.
Examples include resistance bands, medicine balls, focus pads, kettlebells, etc.

Examples of isolation exercises (body weight):

Lateral step-up

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Reverse lunge

Bodyweight squat

Incline push-up

Decline push-up

Triceps dips

Triceps dips (variation)

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Hip adductor/abductor

Use of small portable equipment:

There is a variety of small, portable equipment on the market that is affordable and easy to transport (especially
if you are starting out as a personal trainer). Different types of small, portable equipment are described below and
can be used with any of the above isolation exercises.

Hand weights/dumbbells:

These are available in many different sizes (weights) and are used to add weight to an exercise, i.e. when the
participant’s body has adapted to his/her own body weight the same exercise can be performed using a heavier
weight (force) in order to overload the muscle. Overloading the muscle will stimulate the growth and repair of the
muscle fibres resulting in a stronger muscle. (The catabolic/anabolic process).

In the same way the stress of the weight on the bone causes bone resorption and secretion resulting in a stronger
bone. All free weight exercises can be increased in intensity by adding a hand weight or dumbbell.

Examples:
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Squat with overhead press

Dumbbell front raises

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Dumbbell upright row

1.1.1.1.1

Dumbbell hammer curls

Dumbbell single arm shoulder press

Resistance bands:

Resistance can be used for muscle endurance and strength, range of motion, flexibility and to improve the
cooperation of muscle groups. The resistance band’s unique properties allow it to be stretched and relaxed in a
smooth and consistent manner. This prevents the bounce at the end of a range of motion exercise that can cause
muscle spasm. Resistance bands are versatile, inexpensive, lightweight and portable.
They are available in different colours indicating the thickness and therefore the strength of resistancethe – a
trainer should choose a suitable resistance for the client based on the client’s fitness level, musculo-skeletal
strength and health limitations, as well as the purpose of the exercise. The thin, yellow resistance band is usually
used for flexibility and black band for muscular strength.
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Table 4.1 Resistance band categories

Resistance band Colour Resistance band Thickness

Yellow Thin
Red Medium
Green Heavy
Blue Extra heavy
Black special heavy

Examples:

Resistance band row

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Resistance band lateral raise

Triceps overhead extension with resistance band

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Lateral flexion with resistance band

Focus pads:

Focus pads (also called focus mitts, coaching pads, punch mitts and target pads) are flat, hand-held pads about
12 inches in diameter. They are made of dense foam covered in leather or vinyl. They have
been used in boxing, kickboxing and martial arts training for many years. The pads are held by
the personal trainer while the client performs kicks, punches and blocks. The position in which
the trainer holds the pads, depends on the training objectives of the session – different ranges
and levels build offensive and defensive skills, sharpen reflexes and condition the body.

Medicine balls:

The medicine ball is a weighted ball that varies in size and weight. It provides a round surface that can be used
on smooth or uneven surfaces. Training with a medicine ball can be incorporated into strength-training
programmes to build strength, speed, power and stamina, but can also be used successfully in improving flexibility
and rotational movements. Trainers should choose a suitable medicine ball based on the physical limitation, fitness
and skill of the client.

Examples:

Medicine ball slams

Medicine ball split squat jump

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Stability ball:

The stability ball is a ball made from an inflated, durable polyvinyl with a non-slip surface that challenges stability
while improving balance. These balls vary in size catering for people of different sizes and fitness levels.

Table 4.2: Stability ball sizes

Ball Diameter Height of the user

20-25cm Non- sitting exercises
30cm 1-3 yrs
42-45 1.45m-1.74m
53-55 1.61m-1.74m
65 1.75m-1.85m
75cm 1.86m-1.96m
85 1.97m +

The size of the ball depends not only on the size of the client, but also on the specific use of the ball, i.e. the 20 –
25 cm ball can be used by an adult, but as a squeeze ball rather than a gymnastic ball. The balls can be used for
core and balance training, conditioning and toning, muscle endurance and flexibility.

The trainer must make sure that:

 The ball size is suitable for the client

 The ball is fully inflated with no holes
 The ball is clean
 The environment and the floor space are suitable for the use of the ball - there are no
spikes and no sticky material.
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 The use of the ball has been correctly demonstrated to the client

Examples:

Forward lunge with lateral twist with stability ball

Decline push-up on stability ball

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Back extension on stability ball

Standing adductor squeeze with stability ball

Stability ball plank

Stability ball sit-up

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Pike

Kettlebell:

Kettlebell exercises require stabilisers to control the explosive, swinging movement – great for core and strength
training.

Examples:
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Kettlebell overhead reverse lunge

Kettlebell single arm upright row

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Kettlebell swings

Goblet squat

4.3. RESISTANCE EXERCISE INTENSITY

Resistance training intensity relates to percentage of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). Refer to the following
guidelines which stipulate how to structure the resistance training programme.
Resistance exercises FITT

Frequency: Work the same muscle groups 2 to 3 times per week. To maintain improvement gained
from previous training sessions there should be no more than three days of rest
between training the same muscle groups.

Intensity: Endurance: light–medium intensity (60% 1RM), high repetitions (12+reps), 2-3 sets

Strength: increase resistance (up to 85% 1RM +), lower repetitions ( to 6), 2-6 sets

Power: slightly lighter weight than strength but speed increases intensity (±75 – 85%
1RM), 3-5 repetitions, 3-5 sets

Short term power endurance: lighter than power (10-25 RM: use weight at which
client can perform 10-25 repetitions), 10-25 repetitions, 3 sets

Medium term power endurance: lighter than power (30-50 RM: use weight at
which client can perform 30-50 repetitions), 30-50 repetitions, 1-3 sets.
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*Explosive compound exercises such as squat jumps, uphill running, weighted vest
activities, etc.

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Long term power endurance: lighter than power (100+ RM: use weight at which
client can perform 100 repetitions), 100+ repetitions, 1-2 sets.
*Explosive compound exercises such as squat jumps, uphill running, weighted vest
activities, etc.

Time: 10 – 40 minutes

Type: Compound/ isolation resistance exercises

(Revise physiological effects of resistance training)

4.4 STEP 4: CARDIO-RESPIRATORY EXERCISE

4.4.1 Types of Cardiovascular Exercise

Common cardiovascular activities performed in the gym environment include:

treadmill, stepper, stationary cycle, etc. These machines provide the opportunity
to perform strenuous cardiovascular activities in limited space. When a trainer
does not have access to any of the aforementioned cardiovascular equipment
and has to train a client in a small space he/she can still target the
cardiorespiratory system using equipment such as a skipping rope or a step to
perform rhythmic activities - or even get the client to march on the spot. Of
course, if training takes place in an environment with sufficient space, it is easy
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to walk, jog or cycle around the area.

4.4.1.1 Skipping Rope

A jump rope, skipping rope or skip rope, are the primary tools used in the game of
skipping played by children and many young adults, where one or more participants
jump over a rope swung so that it passes under their feet and over their heads.
Skipping can be an individual exercise, i.e. one person turning and jumping the rope,
or a group exercise with a minimum of three participants taking turns, two turning
the rope while one or more jumps.

In contrast to running, jumping rope is unlikely to lead to knee damage since the
impact of each jump or step is absorbed by both legs. Jumping rope also helps strengthen the arms and shoulders.
This combination of an aerobic workout and coordination-building footwork has made jumping rope a popular form
of exercise for athletes, especially boxers and wrestlers. Individuals or groups can participate in the exercise.
Learning proper jump rope technique is simple compared to many other athletic activities and the exercise is
therefore appropriate for a wide range of ages and fitness levels. Jumping rope is particularly effective in an aerobic
routine combined with other activities, such as walking, biking, or running.

4.4.1.2 Step

The "basic step” involves stepping onto the step with one foot followed by the other foot,
then stepping down onto the floor one foot at a time. A "right basic" step is : Right foot
up/Left foot up; Right foot down / Left foot down.

Personal trainers can use the step for many different moves, e.g. basic step, V-step, over
the step, up and tap, as well as for plyometric exercises, e.g. lunges, power squats, triceps
dips, press ups, reverse curls and fly’s.

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4.4.2 Monitor Cardiovascular Exercise Intensity:

Participants should be encouraged to monitor their exercise intensity using their target heart rate or training heart
rate (THR).

Participants can calculate this simply by subtracting their age in years from 220. Another, safer way, however,
involves the Karvonen formula that indicates heart rate as a percentage based on resting pulse (a good indicator
of fitness). Beginners should start at a lower intensity (60% of maximum) and gradually increase the intensity as
the body adapts.

AGE Maximum heart rate 60%-70% 75-80%

20 200 120 -140 150-160

Encourage participants to check their pulse rate regularly and adjust their speed to either increase or decrease
their heart rate to meet the THR value. This subjective method of monitoring exertion is recommended for use
during sub-maximal fitness tests to encourage clients to assess their own level of exertion and thus assist the
tester in identifying signs of stress.

The rating of perceived exertion (RPE)

This method, originally developed by psychologist Gunmar Borg in 1979, enables exercisers to verbally
evaluate their efforts on a scale of 6 to 20 (see table below). When multiplied by 10 the rating correlates fairly
accurately with heart rate, thus a rating of 15 (hard) would correspond with a heart rate of 150 bpm.

In 1986 the American College of Sports Medicine released a revised rating of perceived exertion evaluating effort
on a scale of 1-10; although it does not correlate to heart rate, this RPE scale has the advantage of being more
“descriptive”.

These subjective methods of monitoring exertion are recommended for use during sub-maximal fitness tests to
encourage clients to assess their own level of exertion and assist the tester in identifying signs of stress. Preferred
exertion is usually between 12 and 14 on the Borg scale.

BORG’S SCALE/ RPE (RATE OF PERCEIVED EXERTION) SCALE

6
7 Very, very light
8
9 Very light
10
11 Fairly light
12
13 Somewhat hard
14
15 Hard
16
17 Very hard
18
19 Very, very hard
20
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ACSM REVISED RATE OF PERCEIVED EXERTION

0 Nothing
0.5 Very, very light (just noticeable)
1 Very light
2 Light (weak)
3 Moderate
4 Somewhat hard
5 Heavy (strong)
6
7 Very heavy
8
9
10 Very, very heavy (almost maximum)

CARDIOVASCULAR TRAINING FITT

Frequency: 3-5 times a week
Intensity: Health: 55 - 70% MHR
Fitness: 70 - 80% MHR
Anaerobic threshold: 80 - 90% MHR
Anaerobic intervals: 90 – 100% MHR
Time: 20 – 30 minutes or longer
Variations: 3 x 10 minutes or 2 x 15 minutes
Type: Cardiovascular
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(Revise physiological effects of cardiovascular training)

4.4.3 Step 5: Cool-down

The cool down must be designed to return the exercisers both physically and mentally to the pre-exercise state.

The cool-down should include a low-intensity cardiovascular activity that prevents pooling of blood in the
extremities and facilitates clearance of metabolic by-products formed during the main-set of the exercise session.
Follow the cardiovascular cool-down activity with some static stretches. Static stretches improve joint range of
motion.

Maintenance stretches:

Lengthen and stretch all muscles using static stretch positions and whole body approach. Hold each stretch for 20-
30 seconds 1-3 sets.

Developmental stretches:

Increase the range of motion and flexibility of specific muscles such as tibialis anterior, hip flexor, quadriceps,
hamstrings and erector spinae.

4.5 CONCLUSION

The ability to develop suitable training sessions that can be conducted in an environment other than the gym
broadens the personal trainer’s scope, provides variety to clients’ exercise programmes and provides new job
opportunities.

Be imaginative… make sessions fun… let your exercise session be the one that is ‘talked about’.

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REFERENCES

American Physical Therapy Association. Walking for Exercise: A Physical Therapist’s Perspective.

Bos, K. (2004). Walking and Light Running. Grafe und Unzer: Munich.

Brehn, B. (2008). Working with Walkers. Fitness Management. October 2008.

CYQ Manual on Training in different environments.

Doyle-Baker,P.K. (2007) Mall walking: A new strategy for physical activity among older adults. WellSpring.
February.

Gormley, B. (2007). Turn Walking into a Workout. Fitness Trainer.

Singh, P. (2006). Facilities, Equipment and supplies. www.srsa.gov.za.

Tufts University Health and Nutrition Letter. Walking: Take the Right Steps to Better Health.
October 2008.
www.cpaa.sa.gov.au. A guide for walking.

http://www.repssa.com/ethics

www.rwfl.co.za

www.weightlossresources.co.uk.

www.wikipedia.com

http://www.livestrong.com/article/310582-benefits-of-using-a-weighted-vest/#ixzz16y90SDcf
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Practical Assessment observation checklist
Unit Number: D/500/8836 or TS1 (HFPA)
FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Centre name / code: Student no:

Student name: Student signature: Date:

Assessor name: Assessor signature: Date:

IV name: IV signature: Date:

P PASS Q QUESTION * PASS WITH COMMENT

R REFER R* REFER OVERALL N/A NOT APPLICABLE
PROGRAMME LAYOUT - ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Identified a safe exercise environment 5
o Took account of health, safety and environmental aspects of the programme
Ensure availability of safety and communication equipment for training outdoors 5
Identified which objects in the environment can add additional intensity/ resistance to the programme 10
PROGRAMME LAYOUT – PROGRAMME DESIGN
Included a client profile: 10
o Name
o Gender
o Height
o Weight
o Body fat percentage
o Past exercise FITT
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o Short term SMART GOALS

Included appropriate warm-up activities 10
o Rotational exercises for joints involved in the programme
o Pulse raising activities/ cardiovascular exercise
o Mobility exercises/ dynamic stretches
o Static stretched for regions that lack ROM (if applicable)
Included the following in the main-set of the programme: 20
o 2-4 x Compound exercises
 2-4 Power/explosive exercises (if client is at fitness level to do these exercises)
 2-4 Compound non-power exercises
o 6-8 x Isolation exercises of all major muscle groups
 Included core and abdominal exercises
Appropriate resistance training FITT was allocated 5
Included cardiovascular component 10
Appropriate cardiovascular training FITT was allocated 5
Included appropriate cool-down activities 5
o Cardiovascular activity
o Static stretches
Was appropriate to the needs of the participant (s) 5
TOTAL: 90
GRADE/ PERCENTAGE PASS/ REFER

Comments:

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CHAPTER 5: SPORTS
SPECIFIC TRAINING
PROGRAMMES
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The goal of a sport-specific exercise programme is to improve

sport performance. In order to achieve this, the programme
must target the same energy systems, muscle groups and
movement patterns as are used in the particular sport.

OBJECTIVES:

The learner will be able to:

Design a sport-specific exercise programme

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CHAPTER 5: ELECTIVE SPORTS CONDITIONING

INTRODUCTION
5.1 THE ROLE OF THE CONDITIONING COACH

It is important to remember that, as a sports conditioning coach, you will be a member of a team working with an
athlete. The athlete may already have a coach, biokineticist, physiotherapist, nutritionist and/or psychologist when
he/she contacts you for a conditioning session – your role is not to ‘diagnose’ or ‘treat’ injury, but to assist the
athlete in strengthening his/her body for the sport in which he/she participates.

This means that you not only have to understand the role of biomechanics, but be able to apply it to a variety of
sports and activities.

Application means using the knowledge and skills you have, not only to recommend a programme, but to
understand why you have selected the activity or exercise. In some cases you may even have to gather information
from a number of sources in order to design a suitable training programme.

The difference between the sports conditioning coach and the sports coach is:

 The sports coach has a role in risk management on the field during game-time, whereas the
sports conditioning coach usually conducts risk management in a gym or outdoor facility
with a focus on the athlete’s body.

 Training by the sports coach is concerned directly with the sport or game itself through
technique or strategy training. The role of the sports conditioning coach is to strengthen
and condition the body by addressing the fitness components specific to the sport.

Each person involved in the athlete’s training should have a clear understanding of their specific role and work as
a member of a team to fulfil the needs of the athlete. All members of the team should understand:

 Short and long goals of the athlete

 Aspects of training that the athlete likes and dislikes
 The training schedule and allocated rest periods

There is never a good reason to ‘push and pull’ the athlete between members of the team – all members must be
flexible but purposeful in their actions and attitudes, and understand the purpose and benefits of the other team
members’ roles.

For example: an athlete attends a coaching session in which the coach has her complete a 6 kilometre running
circuit. After her coaching session, she has an appointment with her conditioning coach. The conditioning coach
had intended to work on muscular endurance, but the athlete is fatigued from the 6 kilometre run. The conditioning
coach decides to change his session to plyometric training and foot work. Although the conditioning coach may be
irritated by the change in plans, it would not benefit the athlete if he stuck rigidly to his original plan.

5.2 OBSERVATION OF THE ATHLETE

Conditioning coaches need to identify the muscles and energy systems involved in the sport in order to choose
tests that relate to the requirements of the sport.

5.2.1 Identify Muscles Involved in Sport Specific Movements.

Observation is the first principle of scrutiny, the coach must note the following:

 Which muscles are specifically involved?

 What kind of contraction is occurring (isotonic, concentric, eccentric or isodynamic)?

 What joints/movements are involved?

 How are these joints moving (flexion, extension, abduction and/or adduction)?
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 Are any muscles or joints used more often than others?

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Reggie Jackson, a Baseball “great”, once said:

“True success is one of our greatest needs. Success is not something you stumble into or comes by accident. It is
something you sincerely prepare for day in and day out, game after game, season after season."

(http://strength-conditioning.net/strength_articles-training-for-baseball.htm)

In the conditioning overview in the article ‘Strength Training and Conditioning for Baseball’ (http://strength-
conditioning.net/strength_articles-training-for-baseball.htm) the following skills are identified: running, batting,
throwing /pitching and catching.

SKILL MUSCLES USED JOINTS TO BE CONSIDERED

Running Quadriceps Hip (ball and socket)
Gastrocnemius Knee (hinge)
Hip Adductors/Abductors
Gluteus
Hamstrings
Batting Latissimus Dorsi Shoulder (ball and socket)
Spinal erector Vertebrae
Abdominal Elbow (hinge joint)
External Oblique Hip (ball and socket)
Deltoid Group Knee (hinge)
Forearm Group
Gluteus
Throwing/pitching Gluteus Shoulder (ball and socket)
Deltoid Group Wrist
Forearm Group Elbow (hinge joint)
Latissimus Dorsi Hip (ball and socket)
Bicep Knee (hinge)
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Triceps Vertebrae
Abdominal
External Oblique
Catching Forearm Elbow joint (hinge)
Fingers Wrist

In this way the sports conditioning coach is first able to identify and consider individual muscles and muscle groups
and then select the appropriate exercises.

5.2.2 Identify Energy Systems used in the Sport

The second consideration is to identify which energy system is predominantly used in the sport.

Some sports may only use one energy system, e.g. a 100m sprint only uses the ATP-PC system. Other sports,
however, may use more than one energy system, e.g. in basketball, instant energy (ATP-PC energy system) is
needed for short bursts of sprinting and jumping, but these short bursts happen throughout the game and energy
for this is therefore needed over a long duration, the aerobic energy system must be well developed to ensure the
athlete recovers during intervals when not using explosive power.

Once the coach understands the energy system/s used during the sport, he/she can make an informed decision
as to the type of exercises to include in the athlete’s programme to target the relevant energy system(s)
optimally.

5.3 ASSESSMENT OF THE ATHLETE

Although coaches (sports and conditioning) use their experience and knowledge to prepare athletes for
performance, organised testing gives them a more systematic and objective assessment of an athlete’s or a
team’s progress towards a goal’ (Pyke, 2001, p.77).

Pyke (2001) noted the following:

 Know levels of fitness and be able to monitor changes

 Be able to recommend specific training activities

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 Evaluate new training methods, technology or equipment

Fees (2000) added that ‘testing offers the benefits of objectively measuring improvement, motivating the athlete
and defining new goals’.

Testing should always be integrated within the overall training plan, competition schedule and training
programme. There are three steps to a testing program:
* identifying physiological requirements,
* testing athletes, and
* recommending individualised training that matches the requirements of testing with the physiological
requirements of the event or sport.

Basic testing usually involves measurement of height, body mass and sum of skinfolds or fat percentage. Other
tests for cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength, endurance, power, speed and agility can also be
included.

5.3.1 Cardiorespiratory Endurance can be determined in two ways:

5.3.1.1 Maximum oxygen uptake (VO2max)

These tests measure an athlete’s capacity to absorb oxygen from the blood and utilise it to produce energy. It is
tested in the laboratory by collecting the athlete’s exhaled breath when walking, running, cycling, rowing or using
an arm-leg ergometer.

The VO2max value for individual athletes will increase during adolescence and early adulthood as they attain
maturity and train extensively. During the mid and later phases of an athlete’s sporting career, the VO2max value
may approach a predetermined genetic upper limit.

You have learned a number of indirect methods for measuring VO2 max which can be used in the gym or on a
sports field.

5.3.1.2 Anaerobic threshold

The anaerobic threshold is the point at which lactic acid begins to accumulate in the blood at a faster rate than it
is removed. Blood samples are taken during exercise to determine lactate levels and these are correlated with
heart rate and oxygen uptake. In this way training zones can be defined.

5.3.1.3 Economy

Economy is defined as ‘how efficiently an athlete uses oxygen’ (Pyke, 2001,p.82) and is calculated from the direct
measurement of oxygen uptake, heart rate and blood lactate concentration.

5.3.2 Muscular Endurance

Muscular endurance is the ability to maintain muscular contraction (isometric contraction) or continue to exert
repetitive movements over a set period of time. Muscular endurance is determined by calculating the number of
contractions in 1 or 2 minutes during muscle endurance tests. It is important that the specific muscle groups are
tested.

5.3.3 Muscular power

Muscular power is the ability to exert force explosively against a heavy weight. Muscular power can be assessed
using the following two power tests: vertical jump (lower body power) and medicine ball push (upper body
power).

These tests are not suitable for a beginner as muscular strength and endurance must first be developed,
starting at the lower range of the muscular fitness continuum. Refer to module 2 chapter 2 for power test
protocols.
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5.3.4 Speed

Speed is measured using the sprint test (20m) in which both the 5, 10, 15 and 20 metre times are recorded. Agility
is the ability to change direction in a sport-specific way at the highest possible speed. The T-test is an example of
an agility test.

T-Test

1. The cones are laid in a T shape – refer to image for floor

layout.
2. The subject starts at cone 1 and runs forward towards
cone 2 placed 10 metres away.
3. The subject must touch the cone with both hands and
then shuffle sideways towards cone 3 (5m to the left).
4. The subject may not cross legs whilst shuffling and on
reaching the cone must touch it with one hand.
5. The subject is to shuffle right towards cone 4 (5m from
cone 2) and touch it.
6. The subject must then shuffle back towards cone 2, and
touch it, before running backwards to the starting
position.
7. Should the subject cross legs while shuffling he/she will
immediately be disqualified. The subject may have three
chances, with the best time being recorded.

Always research sport-specific tests to understand the correct procedure and how they can be applied to specific
sports, e.g. you can adjust the T-test drill for a hockey player by making him/her dribble the ball while performing
the test. This incorporates sport specific skills in the test.
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5.4 SPORT SPECIFIC EXERCISE SESSION LAYOUT

How to structure a one day sport-specific exercise session in order to achieve optimal performance during each
part of the session: The session layout below is based on the recommendations given in Bompa, T. (2005) for less
advanced athletes.

5.4.1 Warm-up

The warm-up prepares the body for the main-set. There are two components of the warm-
up - the general and specific warm-ups.

5.4.1.1 General Warm-up

The general warm-up increases body temperature which increases metabolism and, in
turn, the rate of physical activity/ability. Use the warm-up to introduce the goal of the
training session. This will help the athlete to prepare mentally for the session.

General warm-up activities include joint rotations to facilitate synovial fluid secretion
within the joint and assist with smooth joint motion (example exercises below), followed
by low to moderate cardiovascular activity (cycling, running, multidirectional running,
rowing, etc.). These activities generally relate to the specific sport.

Thereafter callisthenic exercises should be performed - including dynamic and static

stretches targeting joints which lack range of motion - to assist in increasing joint mobility and neuromuscular
activation.

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Joint rotations examples:

Wrist rotations

Shoulder rotations Torso rotations Hip rotations

Dynamic stretches examples:

Lateral lunges Walking lunges

Walking knee lifts Torso lateral flexion

Ankle raises

Spiderman push-ups
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Supermans

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Scorpions

The dynamic and static exercises increase metabolism and optimise joint range of motion with some neural
activation. The body is now prepared for higher intensity warm-up activities such as light jumping or bounding,
followed by sprinting activities to stimulate motor pathways specific to the activities included in the main-set.

Examples of light jumping and bounding activities :

Skipping Squat jumps Double leg hurdle jumps

5.4.1.2 Specific Warm-up

The specific warm up should include activities that the athlete will perform in the main-set but at a slow pace.

The specific warm-up reduces the anaerobic threshold and in turn speeds up the onset of the ‘second wind’ (feeling
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of release).

Rule of thumb: the more taxing (duration, volume) the sporting event, the longer the warm-up should be.

5.4.2 Main Set

The aim of the main-set is to improve competency in sport related drills, skills, etc. The content of the main-set
depends on a number of factors including the level, age, sport season, etc. of the athlete. The figure below
represents the different goals according to age.

Figure 5.1: Age related training goals (derived from Sharkey and Gaskill, 2005)

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When structuring the main-set of the programme be sure to include all the activities that have high neuro-muscular
demands early in the programme. This ensures greater ability to acquire new skills and technique when nerves are
still fresh – as neural fatigue inhibits skill acquisition.

The following main-set structure is recommended by Bompa, 1999 for less advanced athletes:

 Technique or tactical drills

 Speed and coordination drills
 Muscular resistance training (compound and isolation activities)
 Endurance activities

5.4.2.1 Technique

Technique drill examples:

Ankling Butt kicks Straight leg running Skipping

Bounding:

The weight vest can be used during bounding exercises. Bounding is running
with a leaping motion. It is used to improve stride length by exerting more
power into the ground with each stride. The addition of a weight vest will
require more power to achieve the same stride length. When the weight vest
is removed, the athlete will demonstrate a greater stride length. The key to
using the weight vest in bounding exercises is to strive for stride length without
altering form.

Broad jumps:

Adding a weight vest to broad jumps creates a more powerful sprint start. During the start of a sprint, the athlete
will use both legs to create the power needed to start sprinting. Broad jumps teach the athlete this mechanism.
The purpose of a weight vest during broad jumps is to build leg power. Broad jumps can be completed as isolated
jumps or may be combined with actions such as broad jump to sprint, and vertical jump to broad jump.

Explosive step-ups:

This exercise is used to develop two aspects related to running technique. The first is to develop lower body power
which improves stride length and the second is to develop forward knee drive which reduces limb recovery time.
Both these technical aspects lead to improved running speed.

Description of the exercise:

The athlete is positioned behind an exercise step in the fundamental position. The athlete steps with one foot onto
the step and forcefully extends the leg to mimic a jumping action while driving the opposite leg up to chest height.
The arms should follow a running action at the same time. The higher the step the more intense the exercise.
Explosive step-ups should be completed a few times with alternate legs leading.

5.4.2.2 Speed and agility (coordination)

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In any sporting competition you will notice that the faster athlete will always be at an advantage as he/she is able
to travel faster, cross the line and collect the ball, or find a gap faster than other competitors.

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What is Speed Training?

Speed training is described by Karimi (2010) as an ‘accelerated form of athletic training that uses a combination
of resistance and aerobic exercises to condition the body and push athletes to perform at their fullest potential’.
He goes on to say that speed training typically requires alternating drill exercises that involve running and weight
lifting.

Speed training is usually undertaken by experienced athletes and only after a physician's approval. High intensity
exercise pushes the body to its limit; lack of skills or ability to perform each exercise correctly can result in injury.
Speed training exercises under the guidance of a personal trainer, experienced athlete or fitness professional can
help beginners get started with an appropriate speed training programme.

(Speed Training Equipment | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_4727881_speed-training-

equipment.html#ixzz16y4v2GmU)

Guidelines for increasing speed:

 Reduce body fat percentage

 Undertake regular and consistent muscular strength and endurance training sessions
 Monitor progress using a stopwatch
 Run hills
 Increase stride length by stretching
 Increase stride frequency using stretch cords, running downhill and using the treadmill at a
faster speed

http://strength-conditioning.net/strength_articles-training-for-speed.htm

What is Agility Training?

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Agility is described as the ability to change direction at a high speed. Agility exercises should be performed at the
start of a session after a thorough warm up. They are not intended to be physically exhausting as they require a
very high quality of work. Agility exercises are usually included in late pre-season training and during in-season
training. A short, sharp agility session the day before a match or competition helps improve mental and physical
alertness as the competition draws closer.

Equipment

The most common types of speed training equipment include: ladders, sprint or weight vests, performance hurdles,
lateral resistors, medicine balls, stability balls, hand weights, jump ropes and velocity trainer pulleys. This
specialised equipment encourages athletes to run faster, push harder and take part in an accelerated workout for
optimal conditioning.

Ladders

Athletes run up and down the ladder in short bursts while changing direction frequently throughout the sequence.

Guidelines for ladder agility drills:

 Push off from the balls of your feet (not the toes)
 Pump your hands from shoulder height to hips (men) and from chest height to hips (women)
 Keep your elbows at 90 degrees at all times
 Keep your arms, shoulders and hands relaxed
 Try to keep your head still as much as possible

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Sprint/weight vests

The sprint vest enables the conditioning coach to offer resistance by holding the end of the rope. The weight vest
is a versatile and easily transportable piece of fitness equipment that can improve sprint speed. Weight vests have
long been used for developing overall power and strength, but they can also be used to develop speed. Weight
vests that can be securely attached to the body and provide a resistance of around 10 percent of body weight can
help improve sprint speed.

Performance hurdles

Performance hurdles help an athlete build speed and agility using plyometric training techniques that force the
athlete to focus on his/her steps and form as he/she passes through each hurdle, increasing the coordination and
efficiency of each step. Athletes perform exercises moving forward, backward and laterally in all directions. Drills
involving speed hurdles also serve as a good anaerobic conditioning exercise as they involve short bursts of high
intensity.

Lateral Resistors

This requires athletes to move side to side while limiting their range of motion; this is a form of resistance training
that builds stability and agility.

Jump ropes

Increases vertical height and co-ordination.

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Velocity trainer pulleys

Velocity trainers are used during running and other sport-related exercises where the aim is to improve sport-
specific lower body power. The pulley, which acts like a big elastic band, provides additional resistance to the
exercise in multiple directions, taxing multiple muscle groups in the hip region.

Speed and agility drill examples:

Falling starts (acceleration drill)

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Three point stance (acceleration drill)

Quick feet Resisted sprinting (increase stride length)

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Lateral high knees In and out

Hop scotch Push-up lateral in and out

Additional speed and agility drills

Resisted sprints
The simplest application of the weight vest to intensify sprint speed
exercises is the ‘resisted sprint’ exercise. Weight vests are used to
provide resistance to sprints just as weight sleds, parachutes and
tow ropes are used. The weight vest provides resistance to a sprint
and does not pull on any part of the body as might be the case with
a waist belt or harness.

Hill climbing (alternative resistive sprint method)

Hill climbing can increase running speed and muscle strength. When the athlete wears the weight vest, the intensity
of the drill is increased. Start at the bottom of a hill that is about 100 metres long. Sprint to the top, jog back
down, then repeat 10 to 12 times. Finish the session with a 10 to 15 minute cool-down. If you want to increase
the resistance even more, allow the athlete to wear ankle weights.
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Lateral feet drill

 Start with both feet outside of the

first square and to the left

 Step into the first square with the

left foot first, immediately followed
by the right foot... in a 1-2 motion

 Step to the right, outside the first

square again with left foot first,
followed by the right

 Now step diagonally left into the

second square, keeping the same 1-
2 motion, with the left foot always
leading .

 Now step out to the left-hand side

of the second square and repeat for
the full length of the ladder

 When performing several sets of

this drill start at different sides of the ladder so the lead foot changes each time

Tango drill

 Start with both feet outside and to the left of the first
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square

 Cross your left leg over your right leg, placing your
left foot in the centre of the first square. Your right
foot should immediately follow to the right of the
first square, followed by your left foot

 It's a 1-2-3 motion (like dancing)

 From here your right foot comes across your left foot
and into the centre of the second square as the
pattern is repeated in the opposite direction

 Repeat for the full length of the ladder

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Five count drill

 Start with your feet hip width apart at the bottom of the ladder

 Step out to the right of the first square with your right foot then
place your left foot into the first square

 Bring your right foot alongside your left foot in the first square then
step into the second square with your left foot immediately followed
by your right

 Count these first five steps as 1-2-3-4-5.

 Reverse the sequence by stepping out to the left of the third square
with your left foot

 Repeat for the full length of the ladder

Figure runs

Cones are used to mark out a series of numbers of varying sizes. Large groups
should be split into groups of two or three. Each player runs around a number or
figure once then moves to the next figure. Soccer and hockey players can dribble a
ball around the cones while rugby players can run with the ball to make the drill
more sport-specific. Set out a number of figures and vary the heights so that players
work over varying distances.

Agility T-drill

Set up a series of cones similar to the diagram below

in a T-shape. A player starts at the start point (blue
mark in centre), sitting cross-legged. On command
he/she side shuffles (moving sideways on feet) to the
right and back to the centre, then runs backwards
down the T and back to the centre, then shuffles to
the left and back to the centre. This must be done at
full pace. To make it more sport specific, a ball can be
thrown for the player to catch and throw back while
running (ball thrown from yellow dot in diagram).
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Sprint lateral shuffle

Set up a series of markers similar to the diagram below. Starting at the first marker sprint to the second marker
and side step to the third marker, sprint to the fourth marker, side step to the fifth, continue to the end. Rest and
repeat in the other direction so that the side steps lead with the opposite foot.
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Box drill

Mark out a square approximately 10 meters by 10 meters. Place a cone in the centre of the square. This is the
starting position. Each corner is given a number or name. The coach or a training partner calls out a number or
name at random and the player must run to the corresponding corner and return to the centre. As a variation two
players can use the square at once. One player is labelled A and the other B. The coach calls out two numbers.
Player A must run to the corner corresponding to the first number and player B to the second number. This drill
sounds complicated but is easy to implement and is excellent for improving focus.

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5.4.2.3 Muscular resistance training

As mentioned in Chapter 2, to achieve optimal performance during each part of the training session compound
exercises should be performed before isolation exercises. Changing this order favours muscular endurance.

Most sports-specific movements involve functional compound activities and therefore should be performed first in
sport-specific training sessions. Activities that are functional and mimic the movement patterns of the sport have
proved to be best in improving sport performance and developing the sport-specific motor pathways.

Although isolation activities do not specifically translate into improved sport performance, it is still important to
include these exercises in training to ensure muscular balance is maintained. Sportsmen are prone to muscular
imbalances due to the repetitive execution of sports related activities during training and competition.

Compound power exercises

Weight training and non-weight training methods:

Weight training can be classified as either the heavy-load (maximum strength) or the light-load method (30% of
maximum strength) in which both heavy and light loads must be lifted quickly. In the heavy-load method the aim
is to ‘generate a high nerve input to the working muscles’ (Pyke, 2001, p.131) for strength dominated power. The
light-load method aims to increase speed for speed dominated power. An athlete using the heavy-load method
must have strength training experience and understand the high risk of injury.

Non-weight training enables greater specificity than weight training and does not interfere with
technique. Coaches should always keep the following in mind:

 Add additional resistance to increase strength whilst developing technique during technique
drills
 Normal, un-resisted training should be conducted over the same period as resisted training

Resistance exercises that involve the stretch-shortening cycle are called PLYOMETRIC exercises.

Plyometric exercises have the following advantages (Pyke, 2001, p.132):

 They are explosive in nature and therefore develop power

 They are especially valuable for training reactive strength
 They are often highly sport specific
 They do not have a significant deceleration phase during muscle shortening
 They require little, if any equipment

And thus Pyke (2001) makes the following recommendations:

 Athletes must have muscular and skeletal strength

 Athletes must minimise pause between stretching and shortening phases of the exercise

 Technique is very important and should be monitored carefully

 Recovery is essential for the prevention of neuromuscular fatigue and deterioration of

technique

 Progression should consist of double to single leg exercises

 Shock-absorbing shoes on rubberised or firm grass is ideal

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Compound power exercise examples

Medicine ball slams

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Medicine ball chest press Squat jumps Single arm medicine ball push

Medicine ball decline push-ups

Clap push-ups

Split squat jumps Boxing

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Clean and jerk Kick boxing

Additional examples

Tuck jumps

Tuck jumps are explosive plyometric exercises. The athlete stands with his/her feet shoulder width apart and
squats down until the thighs are almost parallel to the floor. Keeping the arms out to the sides, the athlete jumps
into the air, bringing the knees up towards the chest before landing. The action can be repeated 10 to 15 times.
A variation is to jump forward instead of on the spot.

Box jumps

Box jumps are performed on a plyo box. A plyo box is a platform with a solid base and angled legs. The athlete
stands facing the box, crouches down into a squat and jumps up into the air landing on top of the box. The athlete
then jumps back onto the ground and repeats the jump a number of times.

Compound non-power exercise examples

Squat and front shoulder raises Medicine ball wood chops Medicine ball push-ups

Suspension pistol squat Suspension push-ups

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Additional compound non-power exercise examples

Push-ups & pull-ups

There are a number of ways to make push-ups more challenging for the athlete:
Examples:
 Place the feet onto a chair or exercise bench (the incline will put more emphasis on the upper
chest),
 Add a weighted vest
 Get the athlete to lift each leg in the air as he/she lowers him/herself to the ground.

Make pull-ups more challenging:

 Add a weighted vest
 Vary the grip (wide, close, reverse).
 Add more weight with ankle weights.

The exercises above are suggested by http://www.livestrong.com/article/18509-weighted-vest-

exercises/#ixzz16y8nDupc

Isolation exercise examples

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Medicine ball triceps dips Suspension bicep curls

Kettlebell shoulder press Suspension row Suspension single arm front

raise

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5.4.2.4 Endurance Activities

After skills, speed and muscular strength activities have been performed, medium-high intensity cardiovascular
activities can be included in training sessions to increase the athlete’s aerobic endurance. These activities should
be related to the athlete’s specific sport.

Sprint intervals

Sprint interval training is a gruelling form of cardiovascular training - and when an athlete wears a weighted vest,
it becomes even harder. The athlete performs a 10-15 minute warm-up run then sprints all out for 30 seconds,
he/she then jogs at a slow pace for another 60 seconds. These sprints can be performed alternately back and
forth 10-12 times finishing with a 10 minute cool-down run in similar fashion to the warm-up.

5.4.3 Cool-down

To reduce intensity and include some fun activities you can include a ‘game-scenario’ in the cool-down. The game
should incorporate what was practiced in the session.

Slowly reduce cardiovascular exercise intensity and then include full body static stretches.

At the end of the training session it is a good idea to discuss the session with the athlete – did it meet goals? Was
it enjoyed? What can be changed?, What was learned, etc.?

5.4.3.1 The importance of flexibility in sport performance:

Flexibility is defined as ‘the range of motion available to joints, muscles, tendons, connective tissue and nerves’
(Pyke, 2001, p.137). Flexibility can affect an athlete’s performance by influencing technique, either positively or
negatively. The following recent research papers explore these two aspects.

Influence of Flexibility on swimming results with students of sport and physical education (2010) by
Jorgic, Aleksandrovic, Okicic and Madic published in Sport Science Journal

Milisic (2003) identified five basic factors that affected the efficiency of a sports activity. The factors include: sports
technique, energetic capacity, muscle contraction capability, joint mobility and tactics. This study specifically
considered joint mobility or flexibility as optimal mobility would allow the swimmer to perform a proper movement
without using extra energy to overcome the resistance of the ligaments and tendons. Further research (Okicic,
1996) also indicated that younger swimmers were often chosen for competition as they performed better. These
younger swimmers had greater flexibility in their shoulder, knee and ankle joints. It was these ideas that made the
authors consider researching the degree of flexibility and its effect on performance in swimming results in a student
population. Although the authors were unable to prove their hypothesis: ‘Flexibility influences performance’, the
following considerations were obtained:

 Flexibility influences the ability of a person to acquire a swimming technique

 A considerable amount of time (more than 90 minutes a week) is required to master a

swimming technique

 Other studies by other authors have shown a positive correlation between flexibility and
performance in athletes

Changes to flexibility of the hamstrings in sprinters in the context of prevention by Makaruk and
Makaruk (2009) published in the Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism

One of the major risk factors for the hamstring muscles is a low level of flexibility. Makaruk & Makaruk explain that
the hamstring muscle group is rigid. This rigidity is often caused by too high training loads and errors in running
technique. In order to reduce the rigidity the athlete applies stretching exercises to the muscle. In this study
Makaruk & Makaruk examined the hamstring flexibility of 16 sprinters and then proposed the following
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considerations:

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 Be cautious when training speed and technique

 Always include a stretch component (dynamic) in the training

 Remember that fatigue reduces muscle stretchability – include sufficient rest (allow
recovery) when doing anaerobic (high intensity) speed work

 Use both static (after training) and dynamic stretching exercises

 Find optimum flexibility for each athlete

From these recent studies it is clear that flexibility should be included in the training plan. Changing flexibility
patterns affects skill levels, so it is unwise to improve flexibility during the competition phase, this should be done
during the preparatory phase.

CONCLUSION

The skill to develop sport-specific training sessions broadens the personal trainer’s scope. This increases the
trainer’s marketability in a rapidly expanding and ultra-competitive industry.

REFERENCES:

Baechle, T.R and Earle, R.W. (2008). Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. Human Kinetics: United
States.

Bompa, T.O. (1999). Periodization theory and methodology of training. 4th edition. Champaign, K: Human Kinetics.

Jorgic, B., Aleksandrovic, M., Okicic, T. and Madic, D. (2010). Influence of flexibility on Swimming results with
students of Sport and Physical Education. Sports Science 3 (10) 1 pp. 37 – 41.
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Fees, M.A. (2000).Put the results to the test. Athletic Therapy Today (November 2000) p. 46.

Jukendrup, A. and Van Dieman, A. (1998). Heart rate monitoring during training and competition in cyclists. Journal
of Sports Science 19 S91 – S99

Makurak, B. and Makurak, H. (2009). Changes to Flexibility of the hamstring in sprinters in the context of
prevention. Polish Journal of Sport and Tourism (16) pp.152 – 157.

Pyke, F.S. (2001). Better Coaching: Advanced Coach’s Manual. Human Kinetics: Australia.

Singh (2006). Facilities, Equipment and supplies. www.srsa.gov.za.

SASCOC Code of Conduct.

WEBSITES:

www.ereps.eu
http://www.iol.co.za/sport/more-sport/more-athletes-withdraw-from-games-1.681352
http://strength-conditioning.net/strength_articles-training-for-baseball.htm
http://strength-conditioning.net/strength_articles-training-for-speed.htm
Speed Training Equipment | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/about_4727881_speed-training-
equipment.html#ixzz16y4v2GmU)
http://www.livestrong.com/article/143939-weight-vest-sprint-speed-exercises/#ixzz16y8cTZaW.
http://www.livestrong.com/article/18509-weighted-vest-exercises/#ixzz16y8nDupc
http://www.brianmac.co.uk/hrm1.htm
http://sportsmedicine.about.com/cs/strengthening/a/030904.htm
http://www.livestrong.com/article/212400-speed-hurdle-training/#ixzz16y9Pj0cv

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: PERSONAL TRAINER

 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 21
CHAPTER 5: ELECTIVE SPORTS CONDITIONING

SPORTS CONDITIONING IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS

Practical Assessment observation checklist

Unit Number: D/500/8836 or TS1 (HFPA)

SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT

Centre name / code: Student no:

Student name: Student signature: Date:

Assessor name: Assessor signature: Date:

IV name: IV signature: Date:

P PASS Q * PASS WITH COMMENT

QUESTION

R REFER R *
N/A NOT APPLICABLE
REFER
OVERALL

PROGRAMME LAYOUT - ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Identified a safe exercise environment (possibly sports training facility) 5

o Took account of health, safety and environmental aspects of the programme

Ensured availability of safety and communication equipment for training outdoors 5

Identified which objects in the environment can add additional intensity/ resistance to the programme (10 marks) 10

TOTAL: 20

PROGRAMME LAYOUT – PROGRAMME DESIGN

Included a client profile: 10

o Name

o Gender

o Height

o Weight
HFPACOL000117

o Body fat percentage

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: PERSONAL TRAINER

 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 22
CHAPTER 5: ELECTIVE SPORTS CONDITIONING

o Past exercise FITT

o Short term SMART GOALS

Included appropriate warm-up activities 10

GENERAL WARM-UP ACTIVITIES:

o Rotational exercises for joints involved in the programme

o Pulse raising activities/ cardiovascular exercise

o Dynamic stretches

o Static stretched for regions that lack ROM (if applicable)

o Light jumping and bounding activities

o SPECIFIC WARM-UP ACTIVITIES

o Technical elements or part of a routine

o Wind sprints/ starts

Included the following in the main-set of the programme: 40

o 2- 4 x Technique or tactical drills (10 marks)

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o 2-4 x Speed and coordination drills (10 marks)

Muscular resistance training (compound and isolation activities) (10 marks)

o 2-4 x Compound exercises

o 2-4 Power/explosive exercises (if client is at fitness level to do these exercises)

o 2-4 Compound non-power exercises

o 6-8 x Isolation exercises of all major muscle groups

o Included core and abdominal exercises

AEROBIC Endurance activities (10 marks)

o Cardiovascular activities, e.g. fitness, intervals

Appropriate resistance training FITT was allocated 5

Appropriate cardiovascular training FITT was allocated 5

Included appropriate cool-down activities 5

o Cardiovascular activity

o Static stretches

Was appropriate to the needs of the participant (s) 5

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: PERSONAL TRAINER

 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 23
CHAPTER 5: ELECTIVE SPORTS CONDITIONING

TOTAL: 90

PRACTICAL ASSESSMENT

PREPARING – The student

Met participant (s) punctually and made them feel welcome and at ease

Verbally scanned the participant (s)

Explained the objectives planned activities for the session and how these link to the participant (s) goals

Explained the physical and technical demands of the planned activities and how the participant (s) can progress and
regress these to meet their goals

Assessed, agreed and reviewed the participant (s) state of readiness and motivation to take part in the planned activities

Negotiated, agreed and recorded with the participant (s) any changes to planned activities that will meet their goals and
preferences and enable them to maintain progress

BRING THE SESSION TO AN END – The student

Gave the participant (s) an accurate summary of their feedback on the session

Explained to the participant (s) how their progress links to their short, medium and long-term goals

EVALUATION – The student

Evaluated coaching performance

Evaluated effectiveness of training session

Evaluated the feedback gained from the participant

Prepared an action plan for improvement of coaching performance

TEACH AND ADAPT Warm up Light Specific Technique or Speed or Cardio- Cool Result
PLANNED ACTIVITIES – dynamic jumping or warm-up tactical drill coordina- vascular down:
The Student stretches bounding activities tion drill exercise Post
activities workout
stretch

Explained the purpose

and value of the
exercises

Provided participant (s)

with exercises that were
safe and effective for
the component and
participant (s) fitness
level
HFPACOL000117

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: PERSONAL TRAINER

 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 24
CHAPTER 5: ELECTIVE SPORTS CONDITIONING

Provided instructions
and explanations that
are technically correct

Provided safe and

effective
demonstrations

Arranged individual (s)

according to the activity

Varied voice and tone to

convey enthusiasm

Adapted verbal and

non-verbal
communication
methods to ensure
participant (s)
understand what was
required

Checked participant (s)

understanding of
instructions,
explanations and
HFPACOL000008

demonstrations

Observed and analysed

participant’s
performance providing
positive reinforcement
throughout

Improved participant (s)

performance to ensure
activities are carried out
safely and effectively
where appropriate

Used relevant teaching

points with the
emphasis on the
participant (s) actual
performance.

Used the environment

creatively to achieve the
participant (s) wants
and needs

Adapted activities
according to the
participant (s)
preferences and needs

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: PERSONAL TRAINER

 ASSESSMENT AND PROGRAMMING 25
CHAPTER 5: ELECTIVE SPORTS CONDITIONING

Recognised the physical

/ emotional limits of the
individual and enabled
them to maintain their
dignity and self-respect

Used appropriate
teaching and
motivational styles that
respect the participant
(s) needs.

Gave participant (s)

positive feedback for
achievements along
with reasons

Changed teaching
position to improve
performance

Took account of other

users of the outdoor
environment

Explained the purpose

and value of the
exercises

PASS REFER

Comments:
HFPACOL000117

HEALTH AND FITNESS PROFESSIONALS ACADEMY: PERSONAL TRAINER