Process Dynamics and Control

Unit I: Dynamic behaviour of simple processes

Objectives of Chemical Process Control:

A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing units (reactors, heat exchangers, pumps,

distillation columns, absorbers, evaporators, tanks, etc.), integrated with each other in a
systematic and rational manner. The plant's overall objective is to convert certain raw materials
(input feedstock) into desired products using available sources of energy, in the most economic
way. During its operation, a chemical plant must satisfy several requirements imposed by its
designers and the general technical, economic and social conditions in the presence of ever-
changing external influences (disturbances).

Among such requirements are the following:

Safety: The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement, for the well being of
the people in the plant and its continued contribution to the economic development. Thus, the
operating pressures, temperatures, concentration of chemicals, etc. should always be within
allowable limits. For example, if a reactor has been designed to operate at a pressure up to 100
psig, we should have a control system that will maintain the pressure below this value. As
another example, we should try to avoid the development of explosive mixtures during the
operation of a plant.
Production specifications: The plant should produce the desired amounts and quality of the
final products. For example, we may require the production of two million pounds of ethylene
per day, of 99.5% purity, from an ethylene plant. Therefore, a control system is needed to ensure
that the production level (2 million pounds per day) and the purity specifications (99.5%
ethylene) are satisfied.
Environmental regulations: Various federal and state laws may specify that the temperatures,
concentrations of chemicals and flowrates of the effluents from a plant be within certain limits.
Such regulations for example exist on the amounts of SO2 that a plant can eject to the
atmosphere, and the quality of water returned to a river or a lake.
Operational constraints: The various types of equipments used in a chemical plant have
constraints inherent to their operation. Such constraints should be satisfied throughout the
operation of a plant. For example, pumps must maintain a certain net positive suction head; tanks
should not overflow or go dry; distillation columns should not be flooded: the temperature in a
catalytic reactor should not exceed an upper limit since the catalyst will be destroyed. Control
systems are needed to satisfy all these operational constraints.
Economics: The operation of a plant must conform with the market conditions, i.e. the
availability of raw materials and the demand of the final products. Furthermore, it should be as
economic as possible in its utilization of raw materials, energy, capital and human labor. Thus, it
is required that the operating conditions are controlled at given optimum levels of minimum
operating cost, or maximum profit; etc.

Need of Control System

There are three general classes of needs that a control system is called to satisfy:-

1. Suppress the influence of external disturbances,

2. Ensure the 'stability of a chemical process, and

3. Optimize the performance of a chemical process.

Mathematical Modeling of Chemical Processes

Process Modeling

A mathematical model of a process is a set of differential and algebraic equations describing the
static and dynamic behavior of the process. In other words, a mathematical model essentially
describes the physical and chemical phenomena of a process.

Unarguably, performing experiments is the best way to gather information (data) about a
process. However, time, effort and cost associated with experimental approach of gathering
information may not be an easy option, especially for costly experiments. Mathematical model is
a good alternative in such situations. However, it should be noted that a model is never a perfect
alternative to the real life process. There is always a scope of error, however small it may be,
between model and the process.

A mathematical model is useful for various purposes in the process industries. A trainee operator
can learn the process details with the help of a process model. The operator needs to learn know-
hows of critical situation and perform what-if analysis for the process. Such critical situation is
never advisable “to be created” in the real-life plant operation. Hence, simulation of process
model serves the purpose in this case. In fact the simulation of process model is carried out for
design, safety analysis and controller synthesis of that process. Trial of the controller on a
process model prior to the actual plant application is mandatory.

Input, Output and State Variables and Equations

The state variables are a set of fundamental dependent quantities whose values describe the
natural state of a given process or system.
Fig. shows all the Process Variables (PVs) involved in a process or system, which are:

I/P Variables: Manipulated Variables (MVs) and Disturbances (d)

O/P Variables: Controlled Variables which are measured (CVs) and Unmeasured O/Ps

State Variables: Are internal or O/P variables representing the state of the system at any given
time.

Generally the common process variables monitored and controlled in a chemical process are: T
(Temperature), P (Pressure), h (Liquid Level), F (Volumetric Flowrate), CA (Concentration)

The state equations are set of differential equations which describe the progression of the states
with time. The state variables are primarily the fundamental quantities of a process viz., mass,
energy and momentum, whereas the state equations are generated out of conservation principle
involving these fundamental quantities.

Let S be the fundamental quantity. The state equation can be written as:
 (II.1)

If there are N no. of streams going inside a process and M no. of streams coming out of a
process, the Mass Balance (M.B.) equations for the process can be written as:

(II.2)

where ρ and V represent the density and volume of the material inside the system and ρ
and F are the density and flow rate of the incoming/outgoing streams respectively. In case of a
chemical reaction, let CA and CAi be the concentrations of component A of material inside the
process and the streams respectively and r be the rate of the reaction. The component balance
equations can be written as

(II.3)

Let hi and hj be the enthalpies of material inside the process and incoming/outgoing streams
respectively, Q be the heat supplied to the system (or heat removed from the system ), W is the
work done on (or by) the system. Then the Energy Balance (E.B.) equation for such system is
written as

(II.4)

where, generally the total energy E = h (total enthalpy of the system = mCpT)
As the chemical process plants are usually static, momentum balance equations are usually not
required for such cases.

In addition to the above state equations, a few algebraic equations are also useful for modeling of
a chemical process. Examples of such equations are:

Mathematical Modeling of Basic Chemical Process or Systems

1. Liquid Level in Tank:

The liquid level in tank is a first-order system as its dynamic linearized model equation is a
first order differential equation. It is the simplest chemical engineering system for the
process study of dynamic behavior and control. It consists of an input flow stream, a
capacity to store liquid and an outlet stream. The outlet flowrate of the liquid depends on the
liquid level in the tank.

Material Balance

The law of conservation of mass leads to what is called as mass balance.

Mass Flowrate In = Mass Flowrate Out + Mass Accumulation Rate ± Mass Loss or
Generation Rate
For the liquid storage tank shown in the figure, a liquid stream enters the tank with a
volumetric flow rate, Fi (lpm). The effluent stream from the tank is given by F (lpm). Both Fi
and F are functions of time, i.e., Fi(t) and F(t). Thus from the law of conservation of mass we
get:

where, m = mass of liquid in the tank = ρV = ρAh, and A is the cross-sectional area of the
tank which is constant for a cylindrical tank, h = liquid level.

Assumptions:

1. Isothermal process: Temperature of system and all streams is constant at room

temperature.
2. Constant Pressure: Process operates at atmospheric pressure.
3. Density ρ (kg/m3) of the liquid is constant.

Under these assumptions, we get the following equation:

However, the outlet liquid flowrate depends on the liquid level according to a nonlinear
relation:

where cv = constant that depends on the valve opening,

thus the dynamic model equation of the liquid level in tank will be,

This is a nonlinear differential equation which is converted to linear differential equation by

linearization in which we apply the Taylor’s series to the nonlinear term, giving F = h/R,
Substituting this in the above dynamic model equation and rearranging we get:
This is an Ist-order differential model equation of the liquid level system relating the liquid
level to the inlet flowrate.

Comparing this equation with the Ist-order differential equation written in standard form:

y = O/P variable (h for liquid level system)

x = I/P variable (Fi for liquid level system)
 = Time constant (AR for liquid level system)
K = Process gain (R for liquid level system)
The time constant  is defined as the time required to reach 63.2 % of the ultimate value of
response for a unit step input.

2. Mercury Thermometer:

Mercury thermometer is a instrument to sense temperature and is a energy (heat) system

where heat energy exchange dominates, so we start with the law of conservation of energy:

Energy Rate In = Energy Rate Out + Energy Accumulation Rate ± Energy Loss or
Generation Rate
The rearranged E.B. after neglecting heat losses is,

Energy Accumulation Rate = Energy Rate In  Energy Rate Out

where, m = mass of mercury (bulb)

Cp = heat capacity of mercury (bulb)
ΔT = T – Tref, where Tref = 0 oC (reference state assumed)
Q = heat transferred from the hot water bath to the mercury (bulb) = UA(Tb – T)
Inserting the variables and rearranging gives,

where, m and Cp = Mass and Heat capacity of the mercury in thermometer respectively,

U = Heat transfer coefficient, A = Area of heat transfer,

Tb = Bath temperature

T = Thermometer temperature

Further rearranging into standard form,

where,
y = O/P variable (T for thermometer system)
x = I/P variable (Tb for thermometer system)
 = Time constant (mCp/UA for thermometer system)
K = Process gain (1 for thermometer system)

3. Stirred Tank Heater (STH):

Input-Output Model of Stirred Tank Heater (STH):

The model of the STH can be written in the form,

This equation constitutes the Input-Output model of the STH which is shown in terms of the
block diagram below.
4. Isothermal CSTR:

Fig. Isothermal CSTR

In an isothermal CSTR the temperature remains constant and so we can neglect the energy
balance and consider the overall mass balance and the component ‘A’ mole balance,

All other steps remaining the same as above (refer modeling of non-Isothermal CSTR for
starting equations) for the non-Isothermal CSTR we neglect the energy balance and thus the
The final dynamic model equations of a CSTR with a first order reaction A B is,

Here we consider the volume V = const., so that Fi = F and thus on rearrangement and
comparing with the standard first order differential model eqn,

where,

y = CA and u = CAi.

5.Non-Isothermal CSTR:
6. Mixing Process:

Fig. Mixing of components in 2 streams

Assumptions:

1. Isothermal process: Temperature of system and all streams is constant at room

temperature.
2. Constant Pressure: Process operates at atmospheric pressure.
3. Density ρ (kg/m3) of the liquid is constant.

Starting with the basic mass balance:

The overall material balance becomes:

where,
V = Volume of mixture in tank
 = Density of mixture in tank
w = Mass fraction of component ‘A’
w1 = Mass flowrate of stream ‘1’

The component ‘A’ mass balance becomes:

x = Mass fraction of component ‘A’

x1 = Mass fraction of component ‘A’ in stream ‘1’
Types of Processes or Systems and Standard Inputs

Types of Processes or Systems:

From the dynamic study point of view we classify the processes or systems according to the
highest order of the differential equation of the process. Here we consider linear systems.
1. Ist-Order system
2. IInd-Order System …. nth-Order System
3. Pure Gain (or Zeroth-Order) System
4. Pure Capacity System
5. Pure Dead-time or Lag System

1. First (Ist)-Order Process or System:

Most of the systems in chemical process industries are or can be approximated as Ist-order
systems (e.g. Liquid-level, Thermometer, Stirred Tank Heater, CSTR, etc.). The model
differential equation in standard form describing the dynamics of any Ist-order system is:

y = O/P or state variable

x = I/P variable or ‘u’
 = Time constant (p)
K = Process gain (Kp)
The process time constant p is defined as the time required to reach 63.2 % of the ultimate
value of response for a unit step input.
The transfer function of a Ist-order process:
2. Second (IInd)-Order Process or System:

A Second order system response is characterized mainly by oscillations and damping.

Examples of IInd-order processes are U-Tube Manometer, Damped Vibrator, 2 Tank
Interacting or Non-Interacting Systems etc. The model differential equation in standard form
describing the dynamics of any IInd-order system is:

 = Damping Coefficient

The transfer function of a IInd-order process:

3. Pure Gain (or Zeroth Order) System:

These are pure gain systems with the simple I/O relation:
y(t) = Kp x(t)
where y(t) is the variation of the output y w.r.t. time, x(t) is the variation of the input x w.r.t.
time and Kp is the static process gain of the system defined as:

Generally few of the electrical or mechanical systems are zeroth order systems, which have
only resistance.

4. Pure Capacity System:

A liquid level in tank with a constant out-flow ‘q=F0’ (pump) is an example of a pure
capacity process.
 Fig. Pure Capacity System (Output = Constant)

5. Pure Dead-time or Lag System

The transfer function is, G(s) = e-td s
Types of Standard Inputs

Following are the standard forcing (input) functions:

Function Time equation Graph Laplace equation

name
Step input:
This is the
most
standard
input given
to analyze
the system
response
Ramp
input: This
is an
unbounded
input that
goes to
infinity
Sine input:
The
frequency
response
analysis is
based on this
input
Unit f(t) = (t0) 1
Impulse:

Unit Pulse: f(t) = A(t)

Dynamic Response of First Order System to Step Input

A step input is a sudden change in input from one, constant value to another constant value.
The common example is a sudden increase or decrease of inlet flowrate to a liquid level in
tank system, a thermometer suddenly immersed in a hot water bath. Mathematically a step
input in f(t) applied at t = 0 is given by:
whose Laplace transform is

Thus if the step input is applied to a Ist-Order process with dynamic model:

Having a transfer function,

Inserting the input Laplace we get,

and taking inverse-Laplace of this equation we get,

which is the response equation of a Ist-order process to a step input. Following graph shows
the response.
Q1. A thermometer having a time constant of 1 min is initially at 50oC. It is immersed in a
bath maintained at 100oC at t = 0. Determine the temperature reading at t =1.2 min.

Solution

Data given:  = 1 min., Ti = 50, Tf = 100, T(t=1.2) = ?

For the response equation,

y(t) = T – Ti = T – 50

A = Tf – Ti = 100 – 50 = 50 … step input magnitude

Kp = 1 (assumed as not specifically mentioned)

T – 50 = 50(1 – e(-1.2/1))
T = 50 + 34.94 = 84.94oC

Q2. A mercury thermometer having a time constant of 0.1 minute is at steady state
temperature of 90 oC. At time t=0, thermometer is placed in a temperature bath maintained
at 100 oC. Determine the time required for the thermometer to read 98 oC.

Solution:

Data given: τ = 0.1 min., Thermometer Temperature (output) Ti = 90 oC, Tf = 98 oC, Bath
Temperature (input) Tb = 100 oC, determine t = ?
For a step input of magnitude ‘A=Δ input’, the response equation of a first order system is,

Δy = 98 – 90 = 8 oC, A = Δx = 100 – 90 = 10 oC
8 = 10*1*(1 - e-t/0.1)
0.8 = 1 - e-t/0.1
e-t/0.1 = 0.2
ln (e-t/0.1) = ln(0.2)
-t/0.1 = -1.6
 t = 0.16 min

Q3. A thermometer having a time constant of 0.2 min is placed in a temperature bath, and
after the thermometer comes to equilibrium with the bath, the temperature of the bath is
increased linearly with time at a rate of 1°/min. What is the difference between the indicated
temperature and the bath temperature (a) 0.1 min, (b) 1.0 min after the change in
temperature begins?

(c) What is the maximum deviation between indicated temperature and bath temperature,
and when does it occur?

(d) Plot the forcing function and response on the same graph. After a long enough time, by
how many minutes does the response lag the input?

(a) (t = 0.1) =  0.2(1  e-5×0.1) =  0.0787 oF

(b) (t = 1) =  0.2(1  e-5×1) =  0.1987 oF

(c) Maximum deviation when t  ∞  (t) = =  0.2 oF

(d) After a long enough time, Y(t) = t  0.2, since X(t) = t

The response lags the input by 0.2 minutes

Q4. A mercury thermometer bulb is ½ in. long by 1/8 in. diameter. The glass envelope is
very thin. Calculate the time constant in water flowing at 10 ft/sec at a temperature of 100oF.
You can assume all resistance to heat flow is in the outside water and all heat capacity is in
mercury. The heat transfer coefficient for water can be estimated from the following
equation:

= 0.1914 (Note: Pr = )

Data:

Water: Cp = 1.0 Btu/lboF, k = 0.36 Btu/fthroF,  = 0.72 cp = 0.72×2.42 lb/ fthr

Mercury: Cp = 0.33 Btu/lboF, specific gravity = 13.6

Solution

= = = 0.62 s
Q5. A thermometer having first-order dynamics with a time constant of 1 min is at 100oF.
The thermometer is suddenly placed in a bath at 110oF at t = 0 and left there for 1 min, after
which it is immediately returned to a bath at 100oF.

(a) Draw a sketch showing the variation of the thermometer reading with time.

(b) Calculate the thermometer reading at t = 0.5 min and at t = 2.0 min.

Solution: Using the response equations we get,

At t = 0.5 min  T = 103.9347

At t = 2.0 min  T = 102.32

Q6. A mercury thermometer, which has been on a table for some time, is registering the
room temperature, 75oF. Suddenly, it is placed in a 400oF oil bath. The following data are
obtained for the response of the thermometer.

Time, sec 0 1 2.5 5 8 10 15 30

Thermometer T, 75 107 140 205 244 282 328 385
o
F
Estimates the thermometer time constant.

Answer

The thermometer time constant = 10 sec

Q7. The level in a tank responds as a first order system with changes in the inlet flow. Given
the following level vs. time data that was gathered after the inlet flow was increased quickly
from 1.5 gal/min to 4.8 gal/min, determine the transfer function that relates the height in the
tank to the inlet flow. Be sure to use deviation variables and include units on the steady state
gain and the time constant.

Time (min) Level (ft) Time (min) Level (ft) Time (min) Level (ft)
0 4.8 1.2423 8.9354 2.4847 11.4513
0.138 5.3673 1.3804 9.2805 2.6227 11.6612
0.2761 5.9041 1.5184 9.6071 2.7607 11.8599
0.4141 6.412 1.6564 9.9161 ………….. …………..
0.5521 6.8927 1.7945 10.2085 14.3558 15.3261
0.6902 7.3475 1.9325 10.4853 14.4938 15.328
0.8282 7.7779 2.0705 10.7471 14.6319 15.3297
0.9663 8.1852 2.2086 10.9949 14.7699 15.3313
1.1043 8.5706 2.3466 11.2294

Kp = 3.19 ft/gpm

This height occurs at t  2.5 min = . The transfer function is thus:

 =

In this equation: H(s) = h(s) 4.8 ft and Q(s) = q-1.5 . H(s) and Q(s) are deviation variables.

Linearization of Non-Linear Systems

For a single-variable nonlinear function, f(x):

Ex 1: Linearize the Liquid-level in tank system term: using the Taylor’s series
approximation.

Ex 2: Linearize the Non-isothermal CSTR term: CAe-E/RT using the Taylor’s series approximation.
Laplace Transform

Laplace Transform enables one to get a very simple and elegant method of solving linear
differential equation by transforming them into algebraic equations. It is well known that
chemical processes are mathematically represented through a set of differential equations
involving derivatives of process states. Analytical solution of such mathematical models in time
domain is not only difficult but sometimes impossible without taking the help of numerical
techniques.

Definition of Laplace Transform

Consider a function f(t). The Laplace transform of the function is represented by f(s) and defined
by the following expression:

( III.1 )

Hence, the Laplace Transform is a transformation of a function from the t -domain (time domain)
to s-domain (Laplace domain) where both t and s are independent variables.

Properties of Laplace Transform

• The variable s is defined in the complex plane as s =a + jb where .

• Laplace Transform of a function exists if the integral has a finite value.

• Laplace Transform is a linear operation.

Laplace transform of a few basic functions

The Fig. III.1 shows a few basic functions which are frequently used in process control
applications
 Fig. III.1: Few basic functions which are frequently used in process control applications

Step function : See Fig. III.1(a) for the schematic of a step function
Solution of linear ODEs using Laplace Transform

Following example illustrates the method of solving ODEs using Laplace Transform. Consider
the following set of equations arisen from a modeling exercise: