ORGANIZATION OF COMPUTER

A computer is a fast and accurate device, which can accept data, store data, process them and give,
desired results as output. The computer is organized into four units as shown in the following diagram.

Input Unit:

Any device designed to assist in the entry of data into a computer is known as input device. Input devices
convert data from any convenient external format into binary codes that a computer can store and
manipulate internally. Some of the most common, most popularly used devices are following.
a) Mouse
b) Light Pen
c) Touch Screen
d) Keyboard
e) Scanner
f) OCR and MICR
g) Bar Code Reader
h) Joy Stick etc.

Output Unit:

Any peripheral device that converts the stored binary coded data into convenient external forms as test and
pictures are known as Output device. Some of the most popularly used Output devices are following:
a) Visual Display Unit (Monitor)
b) Printer : Dot Matrix and Impact/Non Impact, Printer, Daisy wheel Printer, Line Printers, Ink-jet, Laser
Printer
c) Plotters etc.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) −

• CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.

• CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 • It stores data, intermediate results, and instructions
(program).
• It controls the operation of all parts of the computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

• Memory or Storage Unit

• Control Unit
• ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This
unit supplies information to other units of the computer when
needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or the main
memory or the primary storage or Random Access Memory (RAM).

Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and
secondary memory are two types of memories in the computer.
Functions of the memory unit are −

• It stores all the data and the instructions required for

processing.
• It stores intermediate results of processing.
• It stores the final results of processing before these results are
released to an output device.
• All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main
memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but
does not carry out any actual data processing operations.

Functions of this unit are −

• It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and

instructions among other units of a computer.
• It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 • It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them,
and directs the operation of the computer.
• It communicates with Input/Output devices for transfer of data
or results from storage.
• It does not process or store data.

ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely,

• Arithmetic Section
• Logic Section

Arithmetic Section

Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations

like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. All complex
operations are done by making repetitive use of the above
operations.

Logic Section

Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as

comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of data.

What is Memory?
The computer memory holds the data and instructions needed to process raw data and produce
output. It is the same as a human mind, where data, information, and instructions are stored. It is
a data storage device or a data storage component where instructions for processing data are kept
along with the data that has to be processed. Both the input and the output can be held here.

The computer memory is divided into large number of small parts known as cells. Each cell has a
unique address which varies from 0 to memory size minus one. Computer memory is of two
types: Volatile (RAM) and Non-volatile (ROM). The secondary memory (hard disk) is referred as
storage not memory.

Characteristics of Main Memory:

 o It serves as the computer's main memory.
o As compared to secondary memory, it is faster computer memory.
o Typically, it is a volatile memory.
o Without primary memory, a computer system cannot run.
o These memories are semiconductors.

But, if we categorize memory on behalf of space or location, it is of four types:

o Cache memory
o Primary memory
o Secondary memory

How does computer memory work?

A program is loaded from secondary memory to primary memory when it is opened. There
are several types of memory and storage, for example, a program being moved from a
solid-state drive (SSD) to RAM (Random Access Memory). The opened software will be
able to communicate with the computer's processor at a faster rate because primary
storage is accessed more quickly. The main or primary memory can be accessed quickly
from storage locations such as temporary memory slots.

Data in memory is only saved temporarily since memory is volatile. Data saved in volatile
memory will be erased immediately whenever a computer is turned off. A file is
transported to secondary memory for permanently storage when it is saved.

There are numerous kinds of memory present in a computer. Depending on the primary
memory utilized, it will perform differently, but semiconductor-based memory is typically
connected with memory. Integrated circuits utilizing metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS)
transistors based on silicon will be used to make semiconductor memory.

Types of computer memory

In general, memory can be classified into primary and secondary memory, however even
when just talking about primary memory, there are many different types of memory. There
are some examples of primary memory, such as follows:

o Cache memory: The cache, also known as a temporary storage area, is more
readily available to the processor as compared to the main memory source of the
 computer system. It is mounted on a different chip that connects to the CPU via a
bus or is frequently built directly into the CPU chip; hence, it is also known as CPU
memory.
o RAM: The term refers to the fact that the processor can directly access any storage
location. Random Access Memory, or RAM, is a piece of hardware that serves as
the internal memory of the CPU. It is often found on a on the motherboard of a
computer. When the computer is turned on, it enables the CPU to store programs,
information, and result of the program. Also, it is a computer's read-write memory,
which means data can be added to it as well as read from it.
o Read-only memory: ROM is often only read from and not written to, which is a
type of computer storage. It is nonvolatile in nature, which means it stores data
permanently. The programming code is stored in the ROM that enables a computer
system to boot up or regenerate every time when it is turned on.

o Primary Memory
o Primary Memory is of two types: RAM and ROM.
o RAM (Volatile Memory)
o It is a volatile memory. It means it does not store data or instructions permanently.
When you switch on the computer the data and instructions from the hard disk are
stored in RAM.
o CPU utilizes this data to perform the required tasks. As soon as you shut down the
computer the RAM loses all the data.
o ROM (Non-volatile Memory)
o It is a non-volatile memory. It means it does not lose its data or programs that are
written on it at the time of manufacture. So it is a permanent memory that contains
all important data and instructions needed to perform important tasks like the boot
process.

Secondary Memory
The secondary storage devices which are built into the computer or connected to the compute
secondary memory of the computer. It is also known as external memory or auxiliary storage.

The secondary memory is accessed indirectly via input/output operations. It is non-volatile, so perm
data even when the computer is turned off or until this data is overwritten or deleted. The CPU ca
the secondary memory. First, the secondary memory data is transferred to primary memory then th
it.

Some of the secondary memory or storage devices are described below:

1) Hard Disk:
It is a rigid magnetic disc that is used to store data. It permanently stores data and is located within

The hard disk is also known as a hard drive. It is a rigid magnetic disc that stores data permanen
volatile storage device. The hard disk is located within a drive unit on the computer's motherboard a
or more platters packed in an air-sealed casing. The data is written on the platters by moving a ma
the platters as they spin. The data stored on a computer's hard drive generally includes the operating
software, and the user's files and programs, including pictures, music, videos, text documents, etc.

SSD (Solid State Drive) is also a non-volatile storage medium that is used to hold and access data. U
it does not have moving components, so it offers many advantages over SSD, such as faster acce
operation, less power consumption, and more.

As the cost of SSD has come down, it has become an ideal replacement for a standard hard drive in d
computers. It is also suitable for notebooks, and tablets that don't require lots of storage.

2) Pen drive:
Pen drive is a compact secondary storage device. It is also known as a USB flash drive, thumb drive
connects to a computer via a USB port. It is commonly used to store and transfer data between compu
you can write a report using a computer and then copy or transfer it in the pen drive. Later, you can
drive to a computer to see or edit your report. You can also store your important documents an
videos in the pen drive and keep it at a safe place.

Pen drive does not have movable parts; it comprises an integrated circuit memory chip that stores t
is housed inside a plastic or aluminium casing. The data storage capacity of the pen drive generally
to 128 GB. Furthermore, it is a plug and play device as you don't need additional drives, software, o
it.

3) SD Card:

SD Card stands for Secure Digital Card. It is most often used in portable and mobile devices such as
digital cameras. You can remove it from your device and see the things stored in it using a computer w

There are many memory chips inside the SD card that store the data; it does not have moving parts
created equal, so they may differ from each other in terms of speed, physical sizes, and capacity. For e
SD cards, mini SD cards, and micro SD cards.

4) Compact Disk (CD):

Compact Disk is a portable secondary storage device in the shape of a round medium disk. It is made
plastic. The concept of CD was co-developed by Philips and Sony in 1982. The first CD was created o
at the workshop of Philips in Germany.

In the beginning, it was used for storing and playing sound recordings, later it was used for various
for storing documents, audio files, videos, and other data like software programs in a CD.

5) DVD:

DVD is short for digital versatile disc or digital video disc. It is a type of optical media used for sto
Although it has the same size as a CD, its storage capacity is much more than a CD. So, it is widely us
viewing movies and to distribute software programs as they are too large to fit on a CD. DVD was
Sony, Panasonic, Philips, and Toshiba in 1995.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RAM AND ROM

RAM ROM

Definition of RAM is Random Access Definition of ROM is Read-only Memory

Memory

Random Access Memory (RAM) is ROM is cheaper when compared to RAM.

expensive when compared to ROM

The speed of Random Access Memory The speed of Read-only Memory (ROM) is slower when compared
(RAM) is higher when compared to to RAM.
ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM) has a ROM has a lower capacity compared to RAM
higher capacity when compared to
ROM

Data in RAM can be modified, erased, Data in ROM can only be read, it cannot be modified or erased.
or read.

The data stored in RAM is used by the The data stored in ROM is used to bootstrap the computer.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) to
process current instructions

Data stored on RAM can be accessed If the Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs to access the data on
by the Central Processing Unit. ROM, first the data must be transferred to RAM, and then the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) will be able to access the data.

Data of RAM is very volatile, it will Data present in Read-Only Memory (ROM) is not volatile, it is
exist as long as there is no interruption permanent. Data will remain unchanged even when there is a
in power. disruption in the power supply.
Difference between RAM and ROM
Both RAM and ROM are the primary memories of the computer, however they are
quite different from each other. The important differences between Random
Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) are highlighted in the
following table −

Parameter RAM ROM

Full Form RAM stands for Random ROM stands for Read Only
Access Memory. Memory.

Definition RAM is a primary ROM is a primary memory of

memory of the computer the computer that stores those
that stores those data computer instructions and
and instructions on programs that do not need to
which the CPU is be altered in future like BIOS.
currently working.

Nature RAM is a volatile ROM is a non-volatile memory

memory. Which means that means it stores data
it stores data as long as permanently even when power
power is on. is off.

Data The CPU of the CPU can only read data from
Access computer can read, ROM, but it can write or
write, or alter the data change.
on RAM.

Usage RAM is used to store ROM is used to store data that

data that CPU needs for in needed to bootstrap the
current instruction computer.
processing.

Types There are two major Three types of ROM available –

types of RAM available – PROM (Programmable ROM),
SRAM (Static Random EPROM (Erasable PROM), and
Access Memory) and EEPROM (Electrically EPROM).
DRAM (Dynamic
 Random Access
Memory).

Speed The speed of RAM is The speed of ROM is slower

quite high. than RAM.

CPU CPU can access data Data to be copied from ROM to

Access stored on RAM directly. RAM so that CPU can access its
data.

Capacity RAM memory is large ROM is generally small and of

and high capacity. low capacity.

Used as RAM is used as CPU ROM is used as firmware by

Cache, Primary Memory. microcontrollers.

Cost RAM is costly. ROM is not so expensive.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SYSTEM SOFTWARE AND

APPLICATION SOFTWARE

System Software Application Software

System Software maintains the system

Application software is built for
resources and gives the path for
specific tasks.
application software to run.

While high-level languages are

Low-level languages are used to write
used to write the application
the system software.
software.

While it’s a specific purpose

It is general-purpose software.
software.
 System Software Application Software

Without system software, the system While Without application software

stops and can’t run. system always runs.

System software runs when the system

While application software runs as
is turned on and stops when the system
per the user’s request.
is turned off.

Example: System software is an Example: Application software is

operating system, etc. Photoshop, VLC player, etc.

Application software programming

System Software programming is more
is simpler in comparison to system
complex than application software.
software.

The Software that is designed to control, A set of computer programs

integrate and manage the individual installed in the user’s system and
hardware components and application designed to perform a specific task
software is known as system software. is known as application software.

A system software operates the system Application software runs in the

in the background until the shutdown of front end according to the user’s
the computer. request.

The system software has no interaction Application software connects an

with users. It serves as an interface intermediary between the user and
between hardware and the end user. the computer.

Application software is dependent

on system software because they
System software runs independently.
need a set platform for its
functioning.
Operating System Definition
An operating system, or OS, is a collection of software that manages a computer's
hardware and software resources. It acts as a bridge between the computer's hardware
and the applications that run on it. The introduction of operating systems has played a
vital role in the evolution of computers, making them more user-friendly and efficient.

Features of the Operating System

There are many different operating systems, each with unique features. Here, we will
discuss some of the common features of operating systems.

1. Memory Management: An operating system manages the computer's memory,

ensuring each program has enough memory to run properly. It includes allocating
memory to programs, freeing up memory when a program is closed, and
preventing programs from accessing memory that does not belong to them.
2. Process Management: An operating system is responsible for running processes.
It includes creating new processes, terminating existing processes, and managing
operations scheduling to ensure that the computer's resources are used efficiently.
3. File Management: An operating system manages the file system, which stores and
organizes files on the computer's hard drive. It includes creating, deleting, and
moving files and managing permissions and access to files.
4. Security: Operating systems include security features to prevent unauthorized
computer and resource access. It may consist of user authentication, encryption,
and firewalls.
 5. Hardware Management: An operating system communicates with the
computer's hardware, such as the CPU, memory, and storage devices. It allows the
operating system to control and manage the computer's hardware resources.
6. Networking: Operating systems also include features for connecting to networks,
such as TCP/IP networking protocol support and support for wired and wireless
networks.
7. User Interface: An operating system includes a user interface, which allows the
user to interact with the computer. It may consist of a command-line interface, a
graphical user interface (GUI), or a combination.

Types of Operating Systems

Here, we will discuss some of the most common types of operating systems.

1. Windows: Windows is one of the world's most widely used operating systems. Microsoft
developed and distributed it, used mainly on personal computers and servers. Windows is
known for its user-friendly graphical user interface (GUI) and wide range of software
compatibility.
2. MacOS: MacOS is an operating system developed and distributed by Apple Inc. for its
Macintosh line of computers. It is known for its sleek and modern design and is often
favored by creative professionals for its advanced graphics and video editing capabilities.
3. Linux: Linux is an open-source operating system known for its stability, security, and
flexibility. It is widely used on servers and can also be used on personal computers. Linux
is highly customizable and can be modified to suit an organization's or user's needs.
4. UNIX: UNIX is a multi-user and multitasking operating system known for its stability and
security. It is primarily used on servers and workstations and is often used in enterprise
and academic environments.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Operating System

There are several advantages and disadvantages to using an operating system.

Advantages of Operating Systems:

 1. Resource management: An operating system manages the computer's resources,
such as memory and processing power, to ensure that all programs run efficiently.
2. Security: Operating systems include security features to protect the computer
from unauthorized access and viruses.
3. User interface: Operating systems provide a user-friendly interface that makes it
easy for users to navigate and perform tasks on the computer.
4. Compatibility: Operating systems are designed to work with a wide range of
hardware and software, making it easy for users to add new devices and programs
to the computer.
5. Multitasking: Operating systems allow multiple programs to run simultaneously,
making switching between tasks easy.

Disadvantages of Operating Systems:

1. Cost: Operating systems can be expensive, especially for commercial software.

2. Complexity: Operating systems are complex programs that can be difficult to
learn and use.
3. Security vulnerabilities: Despite the built-in security features, operating systems
are vulnerable to viruses and other forms of malware.
4. Resource hog: Some operating systems are resource-intensive and require
powerful hardware to run efficiently.
5. Limited customization: Some operating systems are proprietary and have limited
options for customization.

ypes of Operating Systems (OS)

An operating system is a well-organized collection of programs that manages the
computer hardware. It is a type of system software that is responsible for the smooth
functioning of the computer system.
Batch Operating System
In the 1970s, Batch processing was very popular. In this technique, similar types of jobs
were batched together and executed in time. People were used to having a single
computer which was called a mainframe.

In Batch operating system, access is given to more than one person; they submit their
respective jobs to the system for the execution.

The system put all of the jobs in a queue on the basis of first come first serve and then
executes the jobs one by one. The users collect their respective output when all the jobs
get executed.
The purpose of this operating system was mainly to transfer control from one job to
another as soon as the job was completed. It contained a small set of programs called the
resident monitor that always resided in one part of the main memory. The remaining part
is used for servicing jobs.
Advantages of Batch OS

o The use of a resident monitor improves computer efficiency as it eliminates CPU

time between two jobs.

Disadvantages of Batch OS
1. Starvation

Batch processing suffers from starvation.

For Example:
There are five jobs J1, J2, J3, J4, and J5, present in the batch. If the execution time of J1 is
very high, then the other four jobs will never be executed, or they will have to wait for a
very long time. Hence the other processes get starved.

2. Not Interactive

Batch Processing is not suitable for jobs that are dependent on the user's input. If a job
requires the input of two numbers from the console, then it will never get it in the batch
processing scenario since the user is not present at the time of execution.

Multiprogramming Operating System

Multiprogramming is an extension to batch processing where the CPU is always kept busy.
Each process needs two types of system time: CPU time and IO time.

In a multiprogramming environment, when a process does its I/O, The CPU can start the
execution of other processes. Therefore, multiprogramming improves the efficiency of the
system.
Advantages of Multiprogramming OS

o Throughout the system, it increased as the CPU always had one program to
execute.
o Response time can also be reduced.

Disadvantages of Multiprogramming OS

o Multiprogramming systems provide an environment in which various systems

resources are used efficiently, but they do not provide any user interaction with the
computer system.

Multiprocessing Operating System

In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. There are more than one processors
present in the system which can execute more than one process at the same time. This
will increase the throughput of the system.
In Multiprocessing, Parallel computing is achieved. More than one processor present in
the system can execute more than one process simultaneously, which will increase the
throughput of the system.

Advantages of Multiprocessing operating system:

o Increased reliability: Due to the multiprocessing system, processing tasks can be

distributed among several processors. This increases reliability as if one processor
fails, the task can be given to another processor for completion.
 o Increased throughout: As several processors increase, more work can be done in
less.

Disadvantages of Multiprocessing operating System

o Multiprocessing operating system is more complex and sophisticated as it takes

care of multiple CPUs simultaneously.

Multitasking Operating System

The multitasking operating system is a logical extension of a multiprogramming system

that enables multiple programs simultaneously. It allows a user to perform more than
one computer task at the same time.
Advantages of Multitasking operating system

o This operating system is more suited to supporting multiple users simultaneously.

o The multitasking operating systems have well-defined memory management.

Disadvantages of Multitasking operating system

o The multiple processors are busier at the same time to complete any task in a
multitasking environment, so the CPU generates more heat.

Network Operating System

An Operating system, which includes software and associated protocols to communicate
with other computers via a network conveniently and cost-effectively, is called Network
Operating System.

Advantages of Network Operating System

 o In this type of operating system, network traffic reduces due to the division
between clients and the server.
o This type of system is less expensive to set up and maintain.

Disadvantages of Network Operating System

o In this type of operating system, the failure of any node in a system affects the
whole system.
o Security and performance are important issues. So trained network administrators
are required for network administration.

Real Time Operating System

In Real-Time Systems, each job carries a certain deadline within which the job is supposed
to be completed, otherwise, the huge loss will be there, or even if the result is produced,
it will be completely useless.

The Application of a Real-Time system exists in the case of military applications, if you
want to drop a missile, then the missile is supposed to be dropped with a certain precision.
Advantages of Real-time operating system:

o Easy to layout, develop and execute real-time applications under the real-time
operating system.
o In a Real-time operating system, the maximum utilization of devices and systems.

Disadvantages of Real-time operating system:

o Real-time operating systems are very costly to develop.

o Real-time operating systems are very complex and can consume critical CPU cycles.

Time-Sharing Operating System

In the Time Sharing operating system, computer resources are allocated in a time-
dependent fashion to several programs simultaneously. Thus it helps to provide a large
number of user's direct access to the main computer. It is a logical extension of
multiprogramming. In time-sharing, the CPU is switched among multiple programs given
by different users on a scheduled basis.
A time-sharing operating system allows many users to be served simultaneously, so
sophisticated CPU scheduling schemes and Input/output management are required.

Time-sharing operating systems are very difficult and expensive to build.

Advantages of Time Sharing Operating System

o The time-sharing operating system provides effective utilization and sharing of

resources.
o This system reduces CPU idle and response time.

Disadvantages of Time Sharing Operating System

o Data transmission rates are very high in comparison to other methods.

o Security and integrity of user programs loaded in memory and data need to be
maintained as many users access the system at the same time.

Distributed Operating System

The Distributed Operating system is not installed on a single machine, it is divided into
parts, and these parts are loaded on different machines. A part of the distributed
Operating system is installed on each machine to make their communication possible.
Distributed Operating systems are much more complex, large, and sophisticated than
Network operating systems because they also have to take care of varying networking
protocols.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

o The distributed operating system provides sharing of resources.

o This type of system is fault-tolerant.

Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System

o Protocol overhead can dominate computation cost.