ATOMIC STRUCTURE

1. Introduction to the Atom

What is an atom? An atom is the smallest unit of an element
that retains all the properties of that element.
Basic Structure: It has a small, central nucleus (containing
protons and neutrons) surrounded by electrons moving in
regions called shells or energy levels.
Why study it? Understanding the atom is key to understanding
all of chemistry—why elements react, how compounds form,
and the nature of matter itself.

2. Atomic Models (The Journey of Discovery)

a) Dalton's Atomic Model (1803)

Main Idea: Atoms are tiny, solid, and indivisible spheres.
Key Points:
1. All matter is made of tiny, indivisible particles called
atoms.
2. Atoms of the same element are identical.
3. Atoms of different elements are different.
4. Compounds are formed when atoms combine in simple
wholenumber ratios.
Importance: It was the first scientific theory based on evidence
and explained the laws of chemical combination.
Flaw: We now know atoms are divisible (they contain
subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, electrons).

b) Rutherford's Model (1911) The Nuclear Model

 Experiment: Fired positively charged alpha particles (α) at a
thin sheet of gold foil.
Observations:
Most particles passed straight through.
A few were deflected at small angles.
Very few (1 in 10,000) bounced straight back.
Conclusions & Key Points:
1. Atom is mostly empty space (most αparticles passed
through).
2. There is a tiny, dense, positively charged center called the
nucleus (the few that bounced back hit this center).
3. Electrons orbit the nucleus (like planets around the sun).
Flaw: According to physics, an orbiting electron should lose
energy and spiral into the nucleus, causing the atom to collapse.
But atoms are stable.

c) Bohr's Model (1913) The Planetary Model with Fixed Orbits

Main Idea: Fixed the flaw in Rutherford's model by proposing
that electrons can only exist in specific, fixed orbits.
Key Points:
1. Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed circular
paths called orbits or shells.
2. Each shell has a fixed energy (called an energy level).
3. Electrons do not lose energy while they are in their
allowed orbit.
4. Electrons can jump to a higher energy level by absorbing
energy or fall to a lower level by emitting energy (as light).
Importance: Successfully explained the stability of the atom
and the line spectrum of hydrogen.
Flaw: It only worked well for the hydrogen atom, not for
atoms with more electrons.
d) Quantum Mechanical Model (Modern Model)
Main Idea: Electrons do not move in precise orbits. Their
behavior is described by probability.
Key Points:
1. Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: It is impossible to
know both the exact location and the exact speed of an electron
at the same time.
2. Electrons exist in "clouds" called orbitals: An orbital is a
region in space where there is a high probability (95%) of
finding an electron.
3. Shells and Subshells: Energy levels (shells) are divided
into sublevels (s, p, d, f), which contain the orbitals.
This is the model scientists use today.

3. Subatomic Particles
These are the particles that make up the atom.

| Particle | Location | Relative Charge | Relative Mass (amu) |

Importance |
| : | : | :: | :: | : |
| Proton | Nucleus | +1 | 1 | Defines the
element (Atomic Number) |
| Neutron | Nucleus | 0 | 1 | Stabilizes the
nucleus. Determines the isotope. |
| Electron | Outside nucleus | 1 | 1/1836 (~0) |
Determines chemical properties and bonding. Charge balances
the proton. |
 In a Neutral Atom: Number of Protons = Number of Electrons.
Behavior in Electric Field:
Protons (+ve) are deflected towards the negative plate.
Electrons (ve) are deflected towards the positive plate.
Neutrons (neutral) go straight through, undeflected.

4. Atomic Number (Z) and Mass Number (A)

Atomic Number (Z):
The number of protons in an atom's nucleus.
It defines the element. E.g., every atom with 6 protons is a
carbon atom.
In a neutral atom, it also tells you the number of electrons.

Mass Number (A):

The total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
Formula: `A = No. of Protons (Z) + No. of Neutrons`
To find neutrons: `No. of Neutrons = A Z`

Symbol Notation: ^A_ZX

E.g., ²³₁₁Na means: Sodium
(Na), Atomic Number = 11, Mass Number = 23. So, it has 11
protons, 11 electrons, and 12 neutrons (23 11 = 12).

5. Isotopes
Definition: Atoms of the same element (same atomic number,
Z) that have different numbers of neutrons (different mass
number, A).
 Key Points:
They have the same chemical properties (because chemistry
is governed by electrons, and they have the same number of
electrons).
They have slightly different physical properties (like
density, boiling point) because their masses are different.
Some isotopes are radioactive (radioisotopes).

Examples:
1. Hydrogen Isotopes:
Protium (¹H): 1p, 0n (Most common)
Deuterium (²H): 1p, 1n (Used in "heavy
water")
Tritium (³H): 1p, 2n (Radioactive)
2. Carbon Isotopes:
Carbon12 (¹²C): 6p, 6n (Standard for
atomic mass)
Carbon14 (¹⁴C): 6p, 8n (Radioactive, used
for carbon dating)

6. Relative Atomic Mass

Why? Atoms are too small to weigh individually.
Standard: The mass of an atom is compared to the mass of a
Carbon12 atom.
1 Atomic Mass Unit (amu) is defined as exactly 1/12th the
mass of one Carbon12 atom.
Calculating Average Atomic Mass: Since elements have
isotopes, the atomic mass on the periodic table is a weighted
average of all its natural isotopes.
 Formula: `Avg. Atomic Mass = (% of Isotope1 × Mass of
Isotope1) + (% of Isotope2 × Mass of Isotope2) + ... / 100`

7. Ions: Cations and Anions

Ion: A charged atom formed by losing or gaining electrons.
Cation (+): A positively charged ion.
Formed when an atom loses one or more electrons.
Example: Sodium (Na) has 11 electrons. It loses 1 electron
to form Na⁺, which has 10 electrons but still 11 protons. The +11
and 10 charges make it +1 overall.
Anion (): A negatively charged ion.
Formed when an atom gains one or more electrons.
Example: Chlorine (Cl) has 17 electrons. It gains 1 electron
to form Cl⁻, which has 18 electrons but only 17 protons. The
+17 and 18 charges make it 1 overall.

8. Electronic Configuration
What is it? The arrangement of electrons in an atom's shells
and subshells.
Shells (Energy Levels): Labeled K, L, M, N... or n=1, 2, 3, 4...
Subshells: Each shell is divided into subshells named s, p, d, f.
Maximum Electrons:
ssubshell can hold 2 electrons.
psubshell can hold 6 electrons.
dsubshell can hold 10 electrons.
fsubshell can hold 14 electrons.
Order of Filling (Aufbau Principle): Electrons fill the lowest
energy subshells first.
Order: 1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p ...
Example:
Sodium (Na, Z=11): 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹
This means: 2 electrons in 1s, 2 in 2s, 6 in 2p, and 1 in 3s.
Total = 11 electrons.

Of course! Here are the solutions to the exercises and activities

from your Unit 3 chapter.

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Activity 3.1: Complete the Structure of Carbon Isotopes

Statement: Carbon has three isotopes \( ^{12}_{6}C,

^{13}_{6}C, ^{14}_{6}C \). Figure 3.3 shows an incomplete
structure. Complete it.

Solution:
All carbon atoms have 6 protons (which defines them as
carbon). The number of neutrons changes.
\( ^{12}_{6}C \): 6 protons + 6 neutrons
\( ^{13}_{6}C \): 6 protons + 7 neutrons
\( ^{14}_{6}C \): 6 protons + 8 neutrons

Your completed diagrams should show a nucleus with the

correct number of protons (p⁺) and neutrons (n⁰), surrounded by
6 electrons (e⁻) in shells (e.g., 2 in the first shell, 4 in the
second).
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Activity 3.2: Chlorine Isotope Symbols

Statement: Chlorine has two isotopes. Figure 3.4 shows their

structure. Write the isotope symbol for each. Natural abundance
is 75.77% and 24.23%.

Solution:
From the structures, we see:
Isotope 1: 17 protons, 18 neutrons. Mass Number = 17 + 18 =
35. Symbol: \( ^{35}_{17}Cl \)
Isotope 2: 17 protons, 20 neutrons. Mass Number = 17 + 20 =
37. Symbol: \( ^{37}_{17}Cl \)

The one with 75.77% abundance is the lighter one, Chlorine-35

(\( ^{35}_{17}Cl \)).

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Activity 3.3: Uranium Isotopes

Statement: Fill in the blanks for Uranium isotopes \(

^{234}_{92}U, ^{235}_{92}U, ^{238}_{92}U \).

Solution:
For ANY uranium (U) atom, the atomic number is 92. This
means:
Number of protons = 92
Number of electrons = 92 (in a neutral atom)
The mass number (A) is the sum of protons and neutrons.
Therefore, Neutrons = A - 92.

\( ^{234}_{92}U \) has 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 142

neutrons (234 - 92 = 142)
\( ^{235}_{92}U \) has 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 143
neutrons (235 - 92 = 143)
\( ^{238}_{92}U \) has 92 protons, 92 electrons, and 146
neutrons (238 - 92 = 146)

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Concept Assessment Exercise 3.1

Problem: An element has two isotopes A and B. The relative

atomic mass of the element is 35.5 amu. The relative abundance
of isotope A is 75.77% and its isotopic mass is 35. Find the
isotopic mass of B if its relative abundance is 24.23%.

Solution:
Use the average atomic mass formula:
`Avg. Mass = (Fraction of A × Mass of A) + (Fraction of B ×
Mass of B)`

1. Convert percentages to fractions:

Fraction of A = 75.77 / 100 = 0.7577
Fraction of B = 24.23 / 100 = 0.2423

2. Plug the known values into the formula:

`35.5 = (0.7577 × 35) + (0.2423 × Mass of B)`
3. Calculate `(0.7577 × 35)`:
`0.7577 × 35 = 26.5195`

4. Now the equation is:

`35.5 = 26.5195 + (0.2423 × Mass of B)`

5. Subtract 26.5195 from both sides:

`35.5 - 26.5195 = 0.2423 × Mass of B`
`8.9805 = 0.2423 × Mass of B`

6. Solve for Mass of B:

`Mass of B = 8.9805 / 0.2423`
`Mass of B ≈ 37.06`

Final Answer: The isotopic mass of isotope B is approximately

37 amu.

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Concept Assessment Exercise 3.2: Formation of Cations

Problem: Describe the formation of cations for:

(a) Li (atomic no 3)
(b) Al (atomic no. 13)

Solution:
(a) Lithium Ion (Li⁺)
A lithium atom has 3 electrons. Configuration: `1s² 2s¹`
It loses its 1 valence electron (in the 2s orbital) to achieve a
stable, full outer shell like helium.
Equation: `Li → Li⁺ + e⁻`
 The Li⁺ ion has the electron configuration `1s²` and a +1
charge.

(b) Aluminium Ion (Al³⁺)

An aluminium atom has 13 electrons. Configuration: `1s² 2s²
2p⁶ 3s² 3p¹`
It loses its 3 valence electrons (from the 3s and 3p orbitals) to
achieve a stable, full outer shell like neon.
Equation: `Al → Al³⁺ + 3e⁻`
The Al³⁺ ion has the electron configuration `1s² 2s² 2p⁶` and a
+3 charge.

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Concept Assessment Exercise 3.3: Formation of Anions

Problem: Describe the formation of anions by:

(a) Sulphur (atomic No. 16)
(b) Chlorine (atomic No. 17)

Solution:
(a) Sulphide Ion (S²⁻)
A sulphur atom has 16 electrons. Configuration: `1s² 2s² 2p⁶
3s² 3p⁴`
It has 6 valence electrons and needs 2 more to complete its
octet (8 electrons).
It gains 2 electrons.
Equation: `S + 2e⁻ → S²⁻`
The S²⁻ ion has the electron configuration `1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶`
and a -2 charge.
(b) Chloride Ion (Cl⁻)
A chlorine atom has 17 electrons. Configuration: `1s² 2s² 2p⁶
3s² 3p⁵`
It has 7 valence electrons and needs 1 more to complete its
octet (8 electrons).
It gains 1 electron.
Equation: `Cl + e⁻ → Cl⁻`
The Cl⁻ ion has the electron configuration `1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶`
and a -1 charge.

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Review Questions (Page 43-44)

1. Encircle the correct answer.

(i) (d) same number of electrons. (Isotopes have the same atomic
number, so they have the same number of protons and electrons
in a neutral atom).
(ii) (b) 14 (Neutrons = Mass No. - Atomic No. = 27 - 13 = 14)
(iii) (c) Cobalt-60
(iv) (c) 3s, 3p, 3d
(v) (c) p (The p sub-shell holds a maximum of 6 electrons)
(vi) (d) \( 1s^2, 2s^2, 2p^6, 3s^1 \) (This adds up to 11
electrons)
(vii) (d) they have same physical properties (Isotopes have
different masses, so their physical properties like density differ)
(viii) (c) U-235

2. Give short answers.

(i) Shell: A major energy level (n=1, 2, 3...). Sub-shell: A
division within a shell (s, p, d, f) where electrons have specific
shapes.
(ii) Because the number of positively charged protons equals the
number of negatively charged electrons.
(iii) Four sub-shells: 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f.
(iv) The notation for the sub-shells of the M shell (n=3) are: 3s,
3p, 3d.
(v) 3s < 3p < 3d (This is the order of increasing energy within
the same shell).
(vi) Yes. You identify an atom by its atomic number (number of
protons), not its neutrons.

12. The atomic number is 23 and mass number is 56.

a. Protons = Atomic Number = 23. Electrons = 23 (in a neutral
atom).
b. Neutrons = Mass Number - Atomic Number = 56 - 23 = 33.

13. Information from \( ^{27}_{13}Al \):

The element is Aluminium.
Its atomic number is 13 (it has 13 protons).
Its mass number is 27 (it has 13 protons + 14 neutrons in this
specific atom).
In a neutral atom, it has 13 electrons.