Page 1 of 19

The Five Generations of Computers

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different generations of
computing devices. A major technological development that fundamentally changed the way computers
operate, resulting in increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices
characterize each generation of computer.

First Generation - 1940-1956: Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often
enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal
of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers
relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input
was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was
far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-
efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a
great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube.
Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers began to use symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to
specify instructions in words. The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy
industry.

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors
were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed
and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards
and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different
applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time
became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built
onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the
hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central
processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.

These small computers became more powerful; they could be linked together to form networks, which
eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of
GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are
some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and
superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and
Nan technology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation
computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-
organization.

Revision Question.
Discuss the five computer generations highlighting the major technological developments.
[10 Marks]

Classifications of computers:
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 2 of 19
Computers are available in different shapes, sizes and weights, due to these different shapes and sizes they
perform different sorts of jobs from one another.

They can also be classified in different ways. All the computers are designed by the qualified computer
architectures that design these machines as their requirements.

A computer that is used in a home differs in size and shape from the computer being used in a hospital.
Computers act as a server in large buildings, while the computer also differs in size and shape performing its
job as a weather forecaster.

In this topic we are going to introduce different classifications of computers one by one. We will discuss what
are in classifications and what job they perform.

1). Super computer.

Highly expensive systems usually found in the form of computer clusters. They are used by the military
and scientific organizations due to their ability to perform the extremely intensive calculation work
required for weather forecasting, molecular modeling and physical simulations.

Key features:

 Large in size
 Higher processing power than mainframe

 Higher Main memory capacity than mainframe.

 High Hard disk storage capacity.

 Generally no monitor, keyboard and mouse.

 No display facility.

 Allow multiple processors

 Allow multiple users.

 Use a variation of UNIX operating system.

2). Mainframes

These are computers used by large organizations like meteorological surveys, in big hospitals, airline
reservations companies and statistical institutes for performing bulk mathematical computations. They are
core computers, which are used for desktop functions of over one hundred people simultaneously. They are
capable of retrieving data on a huge basis. They are normally expensive.

Key features:

 Large in size
 Higher processing power than workstation

 Higher Main memory capacity than workstation.

 Very high Hard disk storage capacity.

 Generally no monitor, keyboard and mouse.

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 3 of 19
 No display facility.

 Allow multiple processors

 Allow multiple users.

 Use a variation of UNIX operating system.

3). Workstation:

This is a computer intended for individual use that is faster and more capable than a personal computer. It's
intended for business or professional use.

Key features:

 Medium in size, larger than a pc.

 High processing power.

 High Main memory capacity.

 High hard disk storage capacity.

 Has a monitor, keyboard and mouse.

 Has large screen color monitor, which can display high-resolution graphics.

 Allow multiple processors

 Allow single user.

 Use a variation of UNIX operating system.

4). Personal computers (pc).

This computer is small in size and you can easily arrange it to fit in your single bedroom with its all
accommodation. Today this is thought to be the most popular computer in all.

Key features:

 Small in size
 Low processing power.

 Low Main memory capacity.

 Low Hard disk storage capacity.

 Has monitor, keyboard and mouse.

 Medium size display screen.

 Allow single processor.

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022

 Page 4 of 19
 Allow single user.

 Use windows, Linux, and UNIX operating systems.

5). Notebook computers

Having a small size and low weight the notebook is easy to carry to anywhere. A student can take it with
him/her to his/her school in his/her bag with his/her book.

Key features:

 Very small in size

 Low processing power.

 Low Main memory capacity.

 Low Hard disk storage capacity.

 Has monitor, keyboard and mouse.

 Has a foldable flat screen small display.

 Allow single processor.

 Allow single user.

 Use a windows operating systems.

7). Client computer:

In a client server-computing environment, this is a computer used by an end user to interact with the server
computer.

Key features:

 Generally small in size

 Generally low processing power.

 Generally low Main memory capacity.

 Generally low Hard disk storage capacity.

 Has monitor, keyboard and mouse.

 Medium to large screen monitor for display.

 Allow single processor

 Allow single user.

 Use windows, Linux and UNIX operating system.

8). Server computer:

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022

 Page 5 of 19
In a client server-computing environment, it refers to a computer that stores files of many users and
programs that can be shared.

Key features:

 Large in size
 High processing power.

 High Main memory capacity.

 High Hard disk storage capacity.

 Generally no monitor, keyboard and mouse.

 No display facility.

 Allow multiple processors

 Allow multiple users.

 Use Windows NT and a variation of UNIX operating system.

A microcomputer: This is a complete computer on a smaller scale and is generally a synonym for the more
common term, personal computer or PC, a computer designed for an individual.

Minicomputer: A term no longer much used, is a computer of a size intermediate between a microcomputer
and a mainframe. Now referred to as mid-range server.

Mini computers like the mainframe computers are used by business organization. The difference being that it
can support the simultaneous working of up to 100 users and is usually maintained in business organizations
for the maintenance of accounts and finances.

Revision Question.

Describe the following types of computers highlighting on size, main memory capacity, hard disk storage
capacity, and number of processors, operating systems, display facility and popular usage.
 Mainframe.
 Super computer
 Minicomputer
 Personal computer.
 Notebook computers
 Server
 Client
[14 Marks]
Application of Computers
 Used for Education in school, colleges etc.
 Used in hospital for controlling machines.
 Used for entertainment e.g. games.
 Used for communication e.g. Internet, E-mail etc.
 Used in military.
 Used for security.
 Used in business e.g. recording of data system.
 Computer network in an organization saves cost.

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022

 Page 6 of 19
Data Representation
It refers to the method used internally to represent information stored in a computer. Computers store lots of
different types of information, namely;
 Numbers
 Text
 Graphics of many varieties (stills, video, animation)
 Sound

At least, these all seem different to us. However, ALL types of information stored in a computer are stored
internally in the same simple format: a sequence of 0's and 1's.

Information passes through a telecommunication system in the form of electromagnetic signals.

Signals are represented in two ways
a. Analog digital
b. Digital signals

A continuous wave form that passes through a communication medium represent an analog signal.
Analog signals are used to handle voice communications and to reflect variations in pitch.
A digital signal is a discrete waveform rather than continuous. It transmits data coded into two discrete
states; 1-bits and 0-bits, which are represented as on and off electrical pulses.
Most computers communicate with digital signals. In a tradition telephone network, if it is set up to process
analog signal, a digital signal cannot be processed without some alterations.
All digital signals must be translated into analog signals before they can be translation is called a modem
(Modulation Demodulation)

Explain the detrimental effect of computers in our day-to-day use

Detrimental are negative impact that computer have in our daily lives.
1. May lead to health problems
In eyes-long use of computers affect our eyes due to light emitted by screen, which affect our cornea hence
damaging it.
Impotence-men who use laptops for long hours make the laptop to over heat, therefore when it placed on laps
affect testis productivity due to high temperatures of heat by the laptop.
2. Moral decadents
The use of Internet services, has programs which affect youth mostly i.e. pornography movies. They are
practicing it, which may lead to infections such as aids. Waste a lot of productive time.
3. Costly
Computers are expensive to buy and maintain after they broke down. They vary cost according to storage
capacity and memory speed. The higher speed the memory and the larger the storage the higher the cost.
4. Over dependence that leads to laziness
In most of offices today use computers to do there daily chores. This makes most of people lazy since they
wait for computer to complete the task. Incase power goes off no one can bothers doing the work manually.
Also the use of Internet for pleasure during work time wastes the productive time e.g. sending mails.
5. Unemployment
Computers have replaced the working drastically during the recent times. Most of companies are
computerized nowadays hence people losing job opportunities.
6. Used by fraud expertise.
Terrorism is organized by computerized systems to keep the update of moves to take by satellite dishes. Also
to get information on certain country.
7. Wrong in input gives out the wrong output.
If feeded with wrong input gives out wrong output. This may affect the expectations or result required by the
user. Waste time for repetitions.
8. Pollution
Damaged and old computers pollute environment since parts are made of plastic material. Also devices used
in computers such as flash disk, CDs, and diskettes, pollute if not well disposed.
9. Noise
Computing can be really noisy. Voice input and output can be distracting for co-workers. Users may develop
headaches and tension from continual exposure to the high frequency and vibrating parts inside the system
unit.
10.Health
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 7 of 19
Research shows that workers whose performance is monitored electronically suffer more health problems
than those watched by human supervisors. I.e. RSI repetitive strain injury – data entry operators may make
as many as 23,000 keystrokes a day. Some of these workers and other heavy keyboard users have fallen
victims to a disorder known as repetitive strain injury.

((Preventive Maintenance)) Tips, for keeping computers in good working conditions.

1. A PC should be located in a room that is cool & dry as possible. Two major hazards to the PCs electronics
are heat & humidity.
2. A PC should have an airflow buffer space all around it. The buffer doesn’t need to be more than a few
inches wide, but make sure there is plenty air space around the pc, and avoid drafty and dusty areas.
3. The PCs codes and cables can be a hazard to you and other people, so keep them together and tucked
away to the cords, the pc, yourself and others.
4. When a pc is powered up and down frequently, the heating and cooling can stress the motherboard and
other electronics, leading to intermittent problems from degradation and eventual catastrophic failures.
Avoid powering the system on and off frequently.
5. Most new PCs have many energy-saving features built into the basic input/output system (BIOS), chipset,
and operating system, such as suspending the hard disk and monitor. Not only do these features save
electricity, they also extend the life of the pc and its components.
6. Always connect the pc to the alternating current (AC) power source through a surge suppressor or an
uninterruptible power supply (UPS). This protects the pc from possible damage caused by electrical
spikes, an antistatic wrist or ankle strap when working inside the PCs case blackouts, and brownouts.
7. Always wear to avoid possible damage from electrostatic discharge (ESD). However, never wear an
antistatic device when working on the monitor or inside the power supply. In fact, you should never work
on a monitor or inside a power supply because the combination of the resistor in the wrist strap and the
capacitor in the monitor or power supply can create enough of an electrical charge to potential kill you.
8. Always close any open applications, shut down the operating system, and power off and unplug the pc
from its power source before beginning work on the pc or its peripherals.
9. Never place a pc- especially its monitor or stereo speakers- near any strongly magnetized objects, which
can distort the image and sound produced by the monitor or speakers, and could eventually damage disk
storage devices as well.
10. Always power down the pc before connecting or disconnecting a serial, parallel, or video device. Universal
serial bus (USB) and Fire Wire devices can be hot-plugged and are a better choice for devices that need to
be removed and replaced often.
11. Activating ant virus programs.
12. Updating anti-virus programs keeps computer files safe. Scan for viruses before opening programs or
set automatic scan. Devices such as CDs, flash should be scanning for viruses to avoid corruption of other
files
13.Servicing computer regularly.
By replacing any damaged apparatus, such as cables, keeping hard disk clean, replacing old computers.
Clean the three and half floppy drive by using a disc cleaning kit.
14.Wipe out dust
Wipe dust regularly and keep computers on dust free prone areas. Cover up the computer after use.
15.Updating software
If possible be updating the software, for efficiency.
16. Do not install or down load new programs, unless authorized by Administrator.
17. Foods and drinks should not use near computers.
18. Avoid touching the computer with wet and sticky hands.
19. To improve on slow computer operations;
o Remove programs you no longer require
o Empty the recycle bin
o Get rid of fonts which are not needed
20. Replace the printer cartridge when needed. The output quality dictates use of a new cartridge.
21. Power used to support the computer system should be just enough.

Communication Channels
These are the means by which data are transmitted from one device to another in a network.
A channel can use different kinds of telecommunication transmission media such as coaxial cables, twisted
wire, fiber-optic cables, and terrestrial microwave, satellite other wireless transmission.
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 8 of 19
1. Twisted pair/twisted wire – it consist of strands of copper wire twisted in pairs. Many of the telephone
systems in buildings had twisted wire installed for analog communication but they can as well be used for
digital communication.

Characteristics
I. It is cheap
II. It can be relatively slow for transmitting data and high-speed transmission causes interference
called cross talk.
III. It is an older transmission medium.

2. Coaxial cables
They consist of a thickly insulated copper wire, which can transmit data over larger volume than twisted wire.
It is often used in place of twisted wire for important lines in a telecommunications network because it is
faster, more interface, free transmission medium, with speeds up to 200 mega bite/seconds.
However it is hard to wire in many buildings because of the thickness and cannot support analog phone
conversations.

3. Fibre-optic cables
This consists of strands of clear glass fiber, each the thickness of a human hair, which is bound into cables.
Data are transformed into pulses of light, which are then sent through the fibre optical cable by a laser device
at a rate from 500 kilobits to several trillion bits per second.
Fibre optic cable is considerably faster, lighter and more durable than wire media and is well suited to
systems requiring transfers of large volume of data. However, it is more difficult to work with, more expensive
and harder to install.

4. Wire less transmission

A common technology for wireless data transmission includes microwave transmission, communication
satellite, pagers, cellular telephone, mobile data networks, personal digital assistants (PDA’s).
The wireless transmission media is the electromagnetic spectrum. Some types of wireless transmission such
as microwave and infrared by nature occupy specific spectrum frequency ranges (measured in megahertz)
I. Microwave
Microwave systems transmit high frequency radio signals through the atmosphere and are widely used
for high volume, long distance, point-to-point communication. Microwave signals follow a straight line
and do not bend with the curvature of the earth.

II. Satellite – satellite transmission involves using orbiting satellite that saves as relay stations for
transmitting microwave signals over a long distances. Communication satellites are least effective for
transmitting large quantities of data over very long distances. Satellite is typically used for
communication in large, geographically dispersed organizations that would be difficult to link together
through cabling media.

III. Mobile data networks-- these are wireless network explicitly designed for two-way transmission of
data files. These radio-based networks transmit data to and from hand held computers.

Disadvantages
 Wireless networks and transmission devices can be more expensive, slower and more error
prone than transmission over wired networks.
 Transmission capacity and energy supply in wireless devices require careful management from
both hardware and software perspectives.
 Security and privacy is also more difficult to maintain because wireless transmission can be
intercepted.

Transmission speed the total amount of information that can be transmitted through any telecommunication
channel is measured in bits/seconds (bps). Digital transmission speed has also been measure by the bound
rate.

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022

 Page 9 of 19
Computer Network And Distributed Processing
A network is an interconnection of Autonomous computers configured to meet the specific requirements of an
organization.

A number of different ways exist to organize telecommunications component. To form a network and hence
provide multiple ways of classifying networks.
Networks can be classified by;
1. The way their components are connected (topology)
2. Their geographical scope
3. Services provided

Network Topologies- physical layout of network

There are three most common topologies namely;
 Star
 Bus
 Ring Topology

Star Topology
 This network consists of a central host computer connected to number of smaller computers or terminals.
 This topology is useful for applications where some processing must be centralized e.g. supermarkets,
branches of a bank, database and some can be performed locally.
 One problem with this network is its vulnerability.
 All communication between points in the network must pass through the central computer because the
central computer is the traffic controller for the other computers and terminals in the network,
communication in the network will come to a stand still if the host computer stops functioning.

Bus network
This network link a number of computers by a single circuit made of twisted wire, coaxial cable, or fibre optic
cable.
All the signals are broadcast in both directions to entire network with special software to identify which
component receive each message.
There is no central host computer to control the entire network. If one of the computers in the network fails,
none of the other components in a network are affected. However the channel in a bus network can handle
only one message at a time so performance can degrade if there is a high volume of network traffic.
When two computers transmit messages simultaneously, a “collision” occurs and the messages must be
resent.

Ring network
This network does not rely on a central host computer just like the bus network and will not necessarily break
down if one of the component computers malfunctions.
Each computer in the network can communicate directly with any other computer, and each process its own
applications independently.
Data are passed along the ring from one computer to another and always flow in one direction.

Hybrid network
These can facilitate direct communication among all the workstation. It is a result of combination of all other
network structures.

Private Branch Exchange (PBX)

This is a special purpose computer designed for handling and switching office telephone calls at a company’s
site.
It can belong to the company or to telecommunications provider.
PBX can carry voice and data to create local networks.
PBX can store, transfer, hold and redial telephone calls and can also be used to switch digital information
among computers and office devices.

Geographical Scope (LAN, WAN, MAN)

Local area network (LAN)
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 10 of 19
Is defined as a communication network that provides inter-connection of a variety of data communication
devices within a small area.
Is a type of network where interconnection of computers cover a limited geographical distance usually located
in a site or a single building.
 LAN’s require their own communication channels and are often controlled by end user groups or
departments in a company.
 LAN’s are generally having higher transmission capacity than PBX using bus or ring topologies and a high
bandwidth.
 They are recommended for applications transmitting higher volumes of data and other functions requiring
high transmission speed such as video and graphic transmissions.
 LAN’s are often used to connect PC’s in an office to shared printers and other resources or to link computers
and computer controlled machines in factories.
 The server stores programs and data files for network users.
 Servers may be powerful PC’s with large hard disk capacity, workstations, minicomputers or mainframes
although specialized computers are available for this purpose.
 The network gateway connects the LAN to public networks such as the telephone network or to other
corporate networks so that the LAN can exchange information with networks external to it.
 Gateway is generally a communication processor that connects dissimilar networks by translating from one
set of protocols to another.
 A router is used to route packets of data through several connected LAN’s onto a wide area network.
 LAN technology consists of cabling or wireless technology that links individual computer devices, network
interface cards (special adapters serving as interfaces to the cable) and software to control the LAN
activities.
 The LAN network interface card specifies the data transmission rate, the size of message, units, addressing
information attached to each message and network topology.
 LAN capabilities are also defined by the Network Operating System (NOS).
 The NOS can reside on every computer in the network or it can reside on a single designated server for all
the applications on the network.
 The NOS routes and manages communications on the network and coordinates network resources.
 Examples of NOS are:
 Novel Netware, windows 2000 server versions, Windows NT.
 LANs may take the form of client/server network; in which true server provides data and application
programs to the client computers on the network or may use a peer to peer architecture.
 The various computers on the network can exchange data by direct access and can share peripheral
devices without going through a separate server.

LAN are characterized by:

 Limited geographical area.
 Low cost of transmission
 Intra-office traffic
 High data transmission rates
 Linked by special cables
 There is often a server computer such as a file server.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Is where the computer interconnections are spread over a larger geographical area.
WAN’s span broad geographical distances, ranging from several miles to entire continents.
WAN’s may consist of combination of switched and dedicated lines microwave, and satellite
communications.
Switched lines are telephone lines that a person can access from his or her terminal to transmit data to
another computer, the call being routed or switched through paths to the designated destination.
Dedicated lines or non-switched lines are continuously available for transmission and the lessee pays a
flat rate for total access to the lines.
The lines can be leased or purchased from common carriers or private communications media vendors.
Most existing WAN’s are switched.

Wan are characterized by:

o Larger geographical area
o High transmission costs (data transmitted over telecommunication links)
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 11 of 19
o Requires modems.

Benefits/uses of computer network

1. They enable fast transmission of data.
2. They allow data accessibility to many people. One computer user can access data from another
computer manager thus end up making optimal decisions because they have access to needed
information.
3. Back-ups. One computer can be used to back up files of another computer just incase there is fire
breakout, natural calamities or other related contingencies.
4. Workload leveling. Within a computer network you can distribute workload from over load
computers to those with less workload.
5. Equipment sharing. Computer resources like Database, Application packages, Software; Printers can
be shared instead of installing these equipments in every computer.

Evaluation of computer networks

1. Cost; Some of the cost to be considered are cabling line cost, network software, administration cost,
cost of hiring a communication line incase of data transmission over a long distances, cost of having
hardware at certain places or surrounding etc.
2. Reliability: this refers to the actual accuracy of message, efficient data transmission and probability
to network failure.
3. Flexibility: This refers to how many different computer models that the network can comprehend.
This is an important aspect for a growing or proliferating organization.
4. Response time: this refers to how long it takes to fulfill a request by a user. It is a function of the
communication system in the organization.
5. Network securities: this refers to measures, which are in place to prevent unauthorized access to
files. It is a function of network operating system, communication lines and security surrounding the
communication system.
6. Throughput: this refers to the volume of data that can be transmitted for a given period of time. This
is largely a function of the communication lines.

Communication Modes
Simplex transmission allows data to travel only in a single, pre specified direction. An example from everyday
life is doorbell the signal can go only from the button to the chime. Two other examples are television and
radio broadcasting. The simplex standard is relatively uncommon for most types of computer-based
telecommunications applications; even devices that are designed primarily to receive information, such as
printers must be able to communicate acknowledgement signals back to the sender devices.

In half duplex transmission messages can move in either direction, but only one way at a time. The press to
talk radio phones used in police cars employs the half-duplex standard; only one person can talk at a time.
Often the line between a desktop workstation and a remote CPU conforms to the half duplex patterns as well.
If another computer is transmitting to a workstation, the operator cannot send new messages until the other
computer finishes its message to acknowledge an interruption.

Full duplex transmission works like traffic on a busy two way street the flow moves in two directions at the
same time. Full-duplexing is ideal for hardware units that need to pass large amounts of data between each
other as in mainframe-to-mainframe communications.

Software
To play a useful role in the organization’s IT infrastructure, the computer hardware requires computers
software.

Software is the detailed instruction that controls the operation of a computer system.

A software programme is a series of statements or instructions to the computer.

The process of writing or coding programs is called programming and individuals who specialize in these
tasks are called programmers.

There are two major types of software

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 12 of 19
1. System software
2. Application software

System software
This is a set of generalized programs that manage the computers resources such as the central processor
communications links and peripheral devices.
Programmes who write system software are called system programmers.

Application software
This describes the programs that are written for or by users to apply the computer to a specific task e.g.
software for processing an order or software for generating a mailing list. Programs who write application
software are called application software.

Relationship between application software and system software.

Table

The types of software are interrelated and can be thought of a set of nested boxes, each of which must
interact closely with the other boxes surrounding it.
The system software surrounds and controls access to the hardware application software must work through
the system software in order to operate.
End users work primarily with application software. Each type of software must be specifically be designed for
a specific machine to ensure its compatibility.

System Software (Detailed)

These coordinate various parts of the computer system and mediate between application software and
computer hardware. The system software that manages and controls the computer’s activities is called the
operating system.

Types of system software includes: -

 Operating system
 Utility programs
 Language translators.

Operating system (OS) software.

The operating system is the computers system’s chief’s manager.

The OS performs the following functions:

1. Allocates and assigns system resources.
It provides locations in primary memory for data and programmes, controls the input and output
devices.
2. Schedules use of computer resources and computer jobs. The OS coordinates the scheduling of
work in various areas of the computer so that different parts of different jobs can be worked on at the
same time.
3. Monitors computer system activities. The OS keeps tracks of each computer job and may also
keep track of who is using the systems of what programs have been run and of any unauthorized
attempt to access the system.
4. OS capabilities such as multiprogramming, virtual storage, multiprocessing, timesharing and multi
tasking enable the computer to handle many different tasks and users at the same time.
5. Logging & Accounting---the OS counts for who log in. Logging means identifying oneself by typing
the user name & password.
6. Provides an interface / link btn the user & output devices.
7. Error reporting –during the program execution, i.e. there occurs an error, the OS furnishes
diagnostic messages to the user & the program execution is stopped for the user’s corrective
responses.

Examples of Operating Systems

 Windows 95, 98, 2000, windows xp, ms dos.

Features of a good Operating System

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 13 of 19
 Better I/O control.
 Offer automatic recovery from error situations.
 Offer automatic recovery scheduling of jobs on priority basis.
 Offer storage protection.
 It should allow dynamic storage allocation in terms of capacity.
 Reliable i.e. able to perform the tasks as required without failure.
 User friendly. Simple & easy to operate.

Utility Programs
These are programs written to enhance the efficiency of carrying out routine/repetitive tasks.
These tasks can also be done by the OS but not as efficiently as utility programs.
Utility programs provide a useful service to the user of the computer providing facilities for performing
common tasks.
Common types of utility programs include
1. Debuggers – used as aid to removing errors from a program
2. Editors – Provide a service of commands, which the user can use to look at a program or data to
make alterations.
3. Peripheral transfer program – Devices helping in the transfer of data to and from the C.P.U.
4. Sort utility – Programs used to arrange files so that they can be read into a specified sequence or
pre-determinal criteria.
5. Merge utility – used to enhance the combining of two files into a single file e.g. mail merge.
6. Back up utility – Enables the user to make duplicate copies of a file or information on a hard disk.
7. Anti virus utility – A virus is program that has the capability of detecting or corrupting computer
files. Anti virus utility is a utility program that scans the hard disk, diskettes and computer memory to
detect viruses.

Language translation
Program that convert program written in human sensible form into machine form. Examples
 Compilers---translators, which transform source, code programs written in high-level languages into
machine code. (Binary code)
 Interpreters---this transform one high-level language statement at a time.
 Assemblers—translators, which transform source programs into 2nd generation languages to match
the machine code programs.

Application Software
It’s a set of instructions or programs designed to help the user save a specific application or problem/task.
A.S. can be bought from manufactures or can be manufactured in house.
An advantage of acquiring a suite of programs rather than an individual program is that it would be cheaper.
A suite is a set of applications put together.
Application programs are normally designed to solve a particular task or problem.
1. Application packages
2. Tailor made/in-house packages

Application packages
They are standardized ready made program that can be bought from the market.
Designed to solve a particular problem but not meant for a single user.
Examples
a. Accounting packages – application software designed to help accountants solve their day to day
routines/tasks e.g. bank reconciliation, payroll processing, production of scheduled reports etc e.g.
sage, QuickBooks, surs system, excel, pastel.
b. Spreadsheets - allow users to create tables and financial schedules by allowing data to be displayed
into rows and columns arranged on V.D.U. spread sheet is a grid of rows and columns used by
accountants and the others produce financial reports and projects. Spreadsheets offers the following:
 Functions- summation, addition, standard deviation, mean e.t.c.
 Formatting – allows the user to improve on the appearance of the spreadsheets e.g. entering
labels and values.
 Consolidation – allows the users to match several works in a summary sheet while keeping
the original sheets intact.

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022

 Page 14 of 19
 Graphics – allows users to display numerical data in a variety of numerical forms including bar
charts, bar graphs, line graphs etc.

Uses of spreadsheets
I. Financial modeling such as cost computation and financial analysis.
II. Budgeting, planning, stock control e.t.c.

a) Text manipulation packages – categorized into

1) Word processor e.g. Ms word, word perfect.
2) Desktop publishing.
3) Word processor – manipulation of data i.e. editing, formatting, Spell checking.
4) Desktop publishing – text manipulation and design word are performed. Mostly used by
publishers of books, newspapers e.t.c. E.g. PageMaker, Ms PowerPoint, publisher, corral draw.

Advantages
I. Portable
II. Developed by experts therefore well tested and are likely to be free of errors.
III. Cheap coz they are produced in large scale therefore advantage of economic scale.
IV. Most application packages are well documented i.e. accompanied by user manuals
V. User friendly- easy to operate.
VI. Readily available – tasks less time to implement them.

Disadvantages
I. Since they are not tailor-made, can’t solve unique problems of users.
II. The user does not have the ownership right.
III. Require regular training especially every time a new package version is introduced into the market.
IV. Require regular maintenance and are subject to regular obsolescence due to rapid development in
software technology and hence they become obsolete or out of date.

In House Or Tailor Made Software

This is software designed to meet the unique needs of a user.
It’s developed with the user in mind to solve his unique problem.
Tailor-made software is suitable under.
1. Where there is enough time to develop own program
2. User’s problem is unique
3. When there is availability of programmers
4. If developing a program in house is cheaper.

Advantages
1. Tailor made- capable of meeting user’s specific problems/requirement
2. Require less training since the users are involved or were part of development
3. There is security since only users within the organization have the knowledge of the software
operation therefore outsiders interference is greatly reduced.
4. The user or the organization gets all the ownership rights.
5. Since the users are respected for the development of software, any maintenance or
modifications can also be done in-house therefore in-house software is not prone to risks of
obsolescence.

Disadvantages
1. Require a lot of time to be implemented
2. Not highly potable i.e. specifically designed to run on specific computers.
3. Most of them may not be well documented i.e. may have no user manuals.
4. They are costly coz the user has to meet all the expenses and does not benefit from economics of
scale.
5. Likely to have errors due to improper testing.

Factors to be considered while selecting appropriate software.

1. Cost- software that an organization chooses should give good value for money i.e. cost effective.
2. User Friendliness – should be easy to use. Should offer online help facilities to the user.
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 15 of 19
3. Flexibility – it should be capable of meeting the current and future needs of the users as they
change. Allow for expansions and upgrading.
4. Maintainability- good software should give room for modifications when errors are found and need to
be eliminated.
5. Compatibility – it should fit into the existing technology as easily as possible.
6. Portability – it should be able to run in a variety of computer systems.
7. Reliability – It must be capable of performing the designated function without failure.
8. Security – It should be fault tolerant i.e. it should allow the user to easily handle mistakes made
during data entry.
9. Documentation – it must be accompanied by instruction manuals high lighting how to use and install
the system.
10. User Requirement - to take care of the users unique needs. The needs of the users will influence the
type of software to be acquired e.g. financial analysis and financial focusing would require spreadsheet
software.

Programming Languages
Computer systems carry out their operations under the control of instructions called programs.
A program is a set of instructions written in programming language and designed to make a computer system
perform a series of specific tasks.
A programming language set of words or symbols that can be used to prepare computer programs
This process of preparing programs that can instruct the computer system is called computer programming.
People who program are called computer programmers.
Programming language may be categorized into five.
A. Machine code (first generation Languages)
B. Second generation languages/assembly languages
C. Third generation languages
D. Fourth generation languages
E. Fifth generation languages

a. Machine language (first generation language)

Were languages designed to instruct 1st generation computers.

Machine languages is a programming language based on binary codes i.e. data and instructions are written in
binary digits (O’s and I’s)

Features of machine language

1. Written in binary digits.
2. Do not need translations
3. Are complex languages to program coz the binary number system requires intensive understanding
that is cumbersome?
4. They are directly executed by the computer coz no time is wasted during translation.
5. They are machine specific i.e. are designed to run on a specific computer system. (Not portable)
6. They are procedural. The user must specify the desired results.
7. Every statement must have the corresponding machine code.

Advantages
1. Are executed very fast since no time wasted in translation
2. Have very high security. Difficult to alter since only professionals can read them.

Disadvantages
1. Time consuming when programming
2. Programs are normally prone to errors
3. Difficult to understand
4. Difficult to debug (remove errors)

(b) 2nd generation languages (Low level languages or Assembly language)

Were developed to overcome the set backs of machine languages.
Machine languages were complex and difficult to program, the 2 nd generation languages use symbolic codes
to represent operation.
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 16 of 19
Each symbol has corresponding binary digits.
 Add represents addition
 Sub represents subtraction
 End represents end of task.

Features of 2nd generation languages

1. Requires translation
2. Are procedural i.e. user must specify the desired results and how to obtain the results.
3. Highly machine specific not portable
4. They use symbolic codes to represent information.
5. They are easy to memorize requiring less program time.

Advantages
1. Easier to use than machine languages
2. Easier to debug than machine languages
3. Not as time consuming when programming as compared to machine language.

Disadvantages
1. Not readily executed since they require translation
2. Are machine dependent i.e. Not portable.
3. Always resulted in very long programs.

(c) Third generation languages

These languages are scientific in orientation
Can be grouped into three.
I. Scientific programming language were use to develop scientific application e.g. Fortran, Pascal.
II. Business languages – developing business operations e.g. COBOL
III. Multi purpose language – used for both scientific and business applications e.g. BASIC

Features Of High Level Languages

1. Highly portable- can be used in different machines.
2. Require translation – use English like statement, which need to be translated into machine
languages.
3. Are procedural – user only need to state how to obtain result.
4. Use symbolic codes – resembling ordinary English.

Advantages
1. Easy to learn coz they are English like (user friendly)
2. Machine independent i.e. portable
3. Take up less time during programming because are easy to understand.
4. Self documenting- because of the English likeness.
5. Easy to maintain because its easy to modify statement.
6. Have few errors during coding

Disadvantages
1. Executed more slowly because they require translation
2. Use computer resources less efficiently because they are machine independent.

(d) Fourth generation languages

 Use English-like statements to access information
 Designed to solve specific problems or develop specific application by enabling the user to specify
what he wants rather that step by step of getting what we want.
 Are usually known as query language.
 Are problem oriented i.e. are meant for solving a particular problem.

Features of 4th generation

1. Non – procedural that is user only need to solve the result and not how to obtain the results.
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 17 of 19
2. Have screen generations, which enables the user to format the screen for easy processing of data.
3. Have query languages that facilitate sharing of computer resources.
4. User friendly (reusability of codes)
5. Fault tolerant. Allow any mistakes made in data entry to be corrected with ease.
6. Application generator – allows a user to give a detailed explanation of what data lead to process.
E.g. oracle, spls structure query languages,

Advantages
1. User friendly
2. Increase programmers productivity by simplifying process
3. Encourage end user program encouraging application of IT in organization.

Disadvantages
1. Not suitable for complex work involving high volume of translation
2. Have specified format of procedures

(e) Fifth generation

5th generation are considered to be the languages of the future.
Meant for experts system and artificial intelligence.

Characteristics Of Good Programming Language

1. Ability to omit ambiguous statement
2. Ability to express programs in readable form
3. Ability to express solution to problems in an application area
4. Ability to express such solutions as compactly as possible.

Factors To Consider When Selecting A Programming Language

1. Cost, development time and effort – 4th generation language have shorter development time that
machine languages. We must consider how long it will take to develop a program using a particular
programming language.
2. Compatibility with other programs as well as existing technology.
3. Level of support – e.g. documentation or manuals.
4. User experience – e.g. which programming language will users prefer?
5. User friendliness – the ease of learning and using
6. Availability and portability of a compiler.
7. Performance and efficiency
8. Purpose of the language – e.g. in a scientific area, one can’t go for COBOL.
9. Error checking and diagnostic facilities available i.e. debuggers.

File –Types & Organization

File & Database
 A file’s a collection of related records of the same kind e.g. a collection of employees’ records for a
single co.
 A file can also be defined as a collection of stored data in the barking storage devices like magnetic
disks, magnetic tapes, and optical disks.
 Filing system may be viewed in 2 ways
o Logical system---the way the user views the file in terms of the content & processing
activities required i.e. what data items are stored & what processing operation are carried out.
o Physical system----actual arrangement of files & the storage media that is used to store the
files i.e. it shows how data is stored in magnetic tapes & disks.
File Contents
1. A Record—it’s a collection of a related but different attributes concerning an individual entity or
object.
2. Attribute---this refers to the unique characters or features, which are used to distinguish one item to
another.
An attribute identifies a particular item in a unique way.
3. Entity---an item to which a record belong.
4. Field---collection of similar attributes of different entities.
5. A bit—basic element of data in a file which is in terms of o’s & 1’s
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 18 of 19
6. Character---a single set of symbol that may be represented in data i.e.
 Numeric
 Alphabetic
 Special / alphanumeric
Types of Files
1. Master file—it’s a file containing a collection of records for the maintenance of the organizations
events.
Records of maser file are permanent & usually contain standing data (data which do not change
frequently)
2. Transaction file –referred to as a changing file.
 Contains records that relates to individual transaction that occur day to day.
 A changing file is normally used to update the master file.
 The contents of a transaction file are temporally.
3. Back up file—it’s a duplicate copy of an existing file maintained for security purposes.
 Files & other computer related devices are prone to theft, floods, fire outbreak or any other disaster
therefore if the organizational files are destroyed by any of these disaster, information can be
recovered from the backup files.
 Files are kept in a different location from the original files.
4. Scratch files---hold data that is no longer needed.
5. Sorted files---these are created from existing files through the process of file margin.
 These files are arranged in either ascending or descending order.
6. Report files—contains records of information that is requested for.
 Aimed at consolidating summarized reports. E.g.
 Financial reports
 VAT reports e.t.c.
File Organization
There are various methods of files organizations
1. Serial file organization
2. Sequential file organization
3. Indexed sequential file organization
4. Random file organization.

1. Serial file organization

 Records in a file are arranged without following a particular order.
 As the records are received they are immediately stored without worrying about order or
sequence.
 To access a particular record in the file, one has to move backward & forward.
 The device usually used is magnetic tapes.

Advantages
 Simple to use & implement.
 Requires cheap storage media such as magnetic tapes.

Disadvantages
 It requires a lot of time to access the records.

2. Sequential file organization

 In this method, records are arranged in a particular sequence i.e. ascending & descending.
 Records are arranged one after the other in pre-determined order e.g. students names could be
arranged according to reg. no.
 In this case, students reg. no. Is the key field.

Advantages
 Supported by cheap storage media such as magnetic tapes.
 Easy to organize, maintain & understand the record.

Disadvantages
 Transactions must be sorted & placed in a particular sequence.
Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022
 Page 19 of 19
 Not flexible since each time a change is made the main file or in the master file, a new sequential
file is to be created.

3. Indexed sequential file organizations

 Records are organized sequentially & an index table provided to speed up the access of records
without requiring searching the entire file.

Advantages
 It’s efficient to use for sequential processing of records.
 It supports fast access to records since it can permit direct access to records in a relatively efficient
way.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to design & implement.
 It requires expensive h/w & s/w devices since direct access storage devices such as magnetic disc
& optical discs required.

4. Random file organization

 Its also called direct file organization
 Here the records are arranged at random but an index is provided which allow for direct access.
 Records are arranged in such a way that it is possible for the computer to directly locate the key of
the desired record without having to go thru’ other records.

Advantages
 Access & retrieval of records is cheaper since there’s no sequential search for records.
 Transactions do not need to be sorted & placed in a particular sequence before string.

Disadvantages
 Difficult to design & implement.
 Requires expensive h/w & s/w devices since direct access storage devices such as magnetic disc &
optical disc required.

Number Bases
Data can be of the following types
 Numeric---numbers can be expressed as whole or decimal numbers.
 Alphabetic—this data is derived from alphabetic characters such as names, marital status etc
 Alphanumeric---this is derived from a combination of characters & numbers e.g. names & addresses.

Number Notation
There are 4 types of no notation
I. Decimal to base10. [0 – 9]
II. Binary to base2. [0 – 1]
III. Octal to base8. [0 – 7]
IV. Hexadecimal to base16. [0 – 9, A-F]
Base Conversions
 Helps computer users to understand how data & info is communicated between the computer &
the user.
 The following are the possible conversions

Decimal Binary conversions

Prepared by Fred. For KCA-University @ 2022