1.

7, Urban Settlements
Settlement hierarchy

The term hierarchy refers to the arrangement of settlements within a given area in an

‘order of importance’.

The ‘order of importance’ in the hierarchy is determined based on:

i) the population size of a settlement

ii) the range and number of services provided by a settlement

iii) the sphere of influence, or market area, of a settlement.

Isolated home/farmstead (1family)

→ Hamlet (5-6 buildings) → Village (upto several
hundred people)
→ small town (10,000-20,000 people)
→ large town (upto 100,000
people) city (upto a million people)
→ Conurbation (1-2 million people)
→ Primate city or capital (several
million people)

Sphere of influence: The sphere of influence or market area is the area served by a particular settlement. The
area of sphere of influence depends upon the size and services of a settlement. Hamlets and villages generally
have low spheres influence.
Range of a good: The maximum distance that a person is prepared to travel to buy an item (good) is known as
the range of a good. Low order goods have a small range whereas high order goods have a large range.
Threshold population: The number of people needed to support a good or service is known as the threshold
population. Low order goods may only need a small number of people to support a small shop, whereas a large
department store might require larger number of people in order for it to survive and make a profit.
Factors affecting the size, growth and function of settlements
A number of factors affect settlement size, growth and function. In extreme environments settlement are
generally small.
1. In those low land where farming can be practiced are more suitable for human settlement
2. Climatic condition also affect the growth and function of the settlement
3. Easy transportation and communication attract more settlement.
4. Settlement in the more favoured areas had greater potential growth, and a greater range of services
and functions
Functions of urban settlement
1. Market town where the famers buy and sell goods. There are many services e.g. shops and offices,
have good transport links, a market place.
2. Port where goods loaded and unloaded by ship. There are sheltered harbours, building or storage
3. Industrial town where many people work in factories, processing raw materials or assembling
products. It is found near coalfields.
4. Resort a place where tourists visit to enjoy themselves. It is located on the coast with beaches or scenic
inland areas, may be large historical cities.
Urban land use models:
Urbanization means an increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities.
Although towns were important even in the early civilization of Mesopotamia and the valley of the Nile, Indus
and Huang-He (China), most people tend to live in rural areas. However, due to rapid of industry in nineteenth
century that large-scale urbanization began in Europe and US.
Urban land use models:
A model is a theoretical framework which may not actually exist, but which helps to explain the reality.
Burgess’s concentric model (1925)
Assumptions:
Burgess assumed that new migrants to a city moved into inner city areas where housing was cheapest and it
was closes to the source of employment. Over time residents move out of the inner city area as they become
wealthier
Features / characteristics:
a. Model based on Chicago in the 1920s
b. The city is growing spatially due to immigration and natural increase
c. The areas around the CBD has the lowest status and highest density housing
d. Residents move outwards with increasing social class and their homes are taken by new
migrants
e. Heart of the city
f. Commercial and shopping facilities, intensive land development, sky scrappers
g. Concentration of main offices, shop, financial institutes, entertainment centres
h. Chief focus of traffic such as road junctions, bus stations
i. Large number of pedestrians

Burgess’s concentric model and c. Hoyt’s Sector model

1. Central Business District (CBD)
2. Factories/Industries
3. Working Class housing
4. Middle Class housing
5. a) A commuter zone
b) high class housing
In his model, housing quality and social class increase with distance from the city centre.
Land in the centre is dominated by commerce as it is best able to afford the high land prices, and requires
highly accessible sites. In the early twentieth century, public transport made the central city the most
accessible part of town. Beyond the CBD is a manufacturing zone that also includes high density, low quality
housing to accommodate the workers.
As the city grows and the CBD expands, the concentric rings of land use are pushed further out.
The area of immediate change adjacent to the expanding CDD is known as the zone in transition.
Hoyt’s sector model (1939)
Homer Hoyt emphasized the importance of transport routes and the incompatibility of certain land uses.
Sectors develop along important routeways, while certain land uses, such s high-class residential and
manufacturing industry deter each other and are separated by buffer zones or physical features.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. What do you understand by typical of a settlement hierarchy?
In a typical settlement of hierarchy –
• there are more small settlements/low order than large ones/high order;
• larger settlements are further away from each other than small ones/smaller ones are closer together;
2. Explain why people are prepared to travel further for some shops and services
than others.
Ideas such as;
• travel further for high order goods; it depends on the availability of the services; e.g. there are lots of shops
selling bread (dev); so people will be able to buy it locally (dev);
• main leisure facilities may only be found in large urban areas;
• so have to travel to a nearby city to go to cinema (dev);
• for some goods people go further so they have a better choice/a wider variety of goods in some shops; travel
further for a better quality product;
• General frequency of use idea e.g. don’t go there very often so will travel further;
• travel further for a specialized shop not found near where they live;
• travel further for cheaper prices; travel further for expensive goods e.g. car; etc
3. For a shop or service in a named settlement you have studied, describe its
location and sphere of influence. Name of settlement…Shop or service…
Content Guide:
Answers will depend on example chosen, however reference may refer to location:
• within CBD,
• on specific street,
• road network,
• proximity other services etc.
4. Describe and explain the main functions of an urban settlement
Content Guide:
• industry,
• commercial development,
• market town,
• education,
• administration/government,
• tourism
• port; etc.
5. Describe the types of land use which occur at the edges of cities.
Ideas such as: housing estates/new housing/detached housing/high quality housing; retail parks/shopping
centres/supermarkets/hypermarkets; large areas for parking; ring roads/motorways/by passes; leisure
centres/specific type of leisure provision; industrial estates/new factories/science parks/footloose industries;
parks/state parks/theme parks/country parks; farmland/plantation/fields/crops/pasture/grazing
land/forestry; squatter settlements; power stations; airports; sewage works; refuse tips/landfill sites; quarries;
game reserves; botanical gardens; commuter/suburbanised villages; reservoirs.
6. For a shop or service in a named settlement you have studied, describe its location and sphere of influence.
Content Guide:
• within CBD,
• on specific street,
• road network,
• proximity other services etc.

7. Explain why shops and services in the CBD of a capital city may have a large sphere of influence.
Ideas such as: they are high order services/goods; they are specialist/they sell comparison goods;
people travel a long way to use them/large range; as there are none available where they live/villages do not
have these services; they may use them infrequently/goods are high cost;
they are easily accessible/centrally located; other high order services or tourist sites or work places are
available nearby; they use advertising; wide variety of goods/large in size;services are more
advanced/sophisticated/high quality goods, etc.
8. Explain why any attempts to reduce traffic congestion in urban areas are likely to create conflicts.
Conflicts/problems such as: Disruption during construction phase; e.g. noise from machinery (dev), dust (dev),
traffic congestion (dev); Use of land for building of transport facilities; loss of cultivable land in suburbs; may
need to demolish properties to build new transport facilities; shanty towns cleared/people become
homeless(dev); potential loss of business for petrol stations/CBD car parks/shops; because people not using
cars as much (dev)/ therefore loss of passing trade (dev). Prefer tax money to be used for something else/leads
to tax increases; etc.
9. Describe the impacts of rapidly growing city on the natural environment.
Ideas such as:
Deforestation/loss of woodland/forest/greenery/open spaces; loss of farmland/hedgerows; habitats
destroyed/animals killed/scared away; species under threat/extinction/examples of species (dev);
filling in of water courses; reclamation of wetlands/swamps/flooding (dev); air pollution; water pollution etc.
10. 4. Explain why high order services have a large threshold population.
Ideas such as:
High order services need more customers to make a profit/use or operate the service; They are often
expensive; High order services are likely to be used less frequently than others;
High order services may be only used by a small proportion of the population; They are often specialist;
Urbanisation is the increase in the population of people living in towns and cities.
Urbanization occurs because people move from rural areas to urban areas. This usually happens when a
country is still developing.

Topic 1.8: Urbanisation

In 1950s, urbanisation has slowed down in MEDCs, and now some of the biggest cities are losing population as
people move away from the city to rural environments. This is known as counter-urbanisation.
The main causes of urbanisation in LEDCs;
 Rural to urban migration is happening on a massive scale due to population pressure and a lack of
resources in rural areas. (this is known as push factors)
 People living in rural areas believe that the standard of living in urban areas will be much better than in
rural areas. They for well-paid jobs, greater opportunities
 to find ‘informal’ work, and better health care and education.
Main features/characteristics of Central Business District (CBD)
 Commercial and shopping facilities, Intensive land development – skycrappers
 Concentration of main offices – shops – financial institutions – entertainment centres
 Chief focus of traffic (junctions, bust stations)
 Large number of pedestrians
  Vertical zoning – shops occupy ground floors because of accessibility while offices occupy upper floors
 Functional grouping – similar shops and similar functions tend to locate together increasing their
threshold
 Traffic restrictions are greatest in the CBD – pedestrianisation has reduced access for cars.
 Concentration of retailing – high levels of accessibility attract shops with high range and threshold
characteristics
 Low residential population – high bed rents can only be met by luxury apartments
Benefits – basic facilities are available (road, water, electricity), city centre location, cheaper goods are
available.
Migration from Rural Peru to Lima
Factors influencing migration from villages in Andes to Lima
 Not enough agricultural land because it is shared between sons
 Drought and other natural hazards
 Low prices for agricultural products
 Cannot afford clothes and food for children
 Not much opportunity for children to go to school
 No running water, electricity or sewage disposal in many villages.
 What migrants experience when they get to Lima
 Racial discrimination
 Separation from family
 Better quality services, e.g. water, electricity
 Better schools for migrants children
 Low pay and long working hours
 Forced to live in self-built houses or on the streets
Dharavi is a slum and administrative ward, suburbs of Mumbai, India. Dharavi is one of the largest slums in the
world. It used to be the largest slum in Mumbai at one time, but as of 2011, there are four slums in Mumbai
larger than Dharavi. In 1986 the population was 530,225, but modern Dharavi has a population near 1 million.
The facts:
1. Dharavi covers an area of 535 acres (217 ha), it is situated near to the Mithi River,
2. Migrants from Gujarat established a potters' colony.
3. Migrant tanners from Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra set up the leather tanning industry.
4. The embroidery workers from Uttar Pradesh, started the ready-made garments trade.
5. Dharavi's first school was constructed in 1924.
6. There is an increasingly large recycling industry, processing recyclable waste from other parts of Mumbai.
7. The district has an estimated 5000 businesses and 15,000 single-room factories
Positive Conditions:
1. Dharavi provides a cheap housing where rents are as low as US$4 per month.
2. Dharavi exports goods around the world. The total turnover is estimated to be over US$650 million/year.
3. Informal shopping areas exist where it is possible to buy anything needed.
4. 85% of people have a job in the slum and work LOCALLY, and some have even managed to become
millionaires.
5. Everything is recycled (23% of plastic waste recycled in the UK, in Mumbai it is 80%)
6. These areas have strong safe neighbourhoods that have low crime and communal riots.
Negative Conditions:
1. Poor drainage systems make Dharavi particularly vulnerable to floods during the wet season.
2. Dharavi has severe problems with public health, due to the scarcity of toilet facilities. As of November 2006
there was only one toilet per 1,440 residents.
3. The area also suffers from problems with inadequate drinking water supply.
4. The doctors deal with 4,000 cases a day of diphtheria and typhoid.
5. People live in very small dwellings (12X12ft), often with many members of their extended families (5 people
per room).
6. The houses often have no windows and safe doors.
7. They have to work under the hot sun in dangerous conditions with toxic substances without protective
clothing to earn around a £1 a day, this could affect life expectancy.
Redevelopment;
1. There have been many plans since 1997 to redevelop Dharavi. In 2004, the cost of redevelopment was
estimated to be US$770 million.
A case study on squatter settlement in Dharavi, Mumbai
2. The Dharavi co-operative housing society, by the initiative of Shri. M.V. Duraiswamy, promoted 338 flats and
97 shops and was named "Dr. Baliga
Nagar."
The latest urban redevelopment plan proposed by architect Mukesh Mehta, involves the construction of
30,000,000 square feet of housing, schools, parks and roads to serve the 57,000 families residing.
The slum dwellers face 14 story apartments as accommodation as proposed by the cities Slum Rehabilitation
Authority.
Redevelopment problems;
1. There has been significant local opposition to the plans, largely because existing residents are due to receive
only 269 square feet of land each.
2. Furthermore, only those families who lived in the area before 2000 are slated for resettlement.
3. Concerns have also been raised that some of their small businesses in the "informal" sector may not be
relocated under the redevelopment plan as the government will only legalize industries that are not
"polluting."
4. The locals would prefer small improvements to the existing slum such as improvements in drainage.
5. The value of land is so high that redevelopment is now a real threat. The alternative accommodation is very
small.
6. This will separate communities and make people work away from where they live.

Theme-2, Natural Environment

2.1, Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Volcano- an opening in the earth’s crust through which hot molten magma (lava), molten rock and ask are
erupted on to the land.
Most volcanoes are found near plate boundaries. A Volcano is a conical or dome-shaped landform formed from
the accumulation of lava that has been emitted onto earth’s surface. These materials include lava and
pyroclastic materials, which consists of ash, dust, gas and rock fragments. All fragments thrown into the air by a
volcanic eruption are called pyroclastic material. Volcanoes that consist predominantly of pyroclastic materials
are called cinder cones.
Formation of Volcanoes:
The formation of volcanoes begins when the magma chamber below the earth’s surface experiences pressure
from movements at plate boundaries. The pressure may result from the collision of two plates at convergent
plate boundaries or the moving apart of two plates at divergent plate boundaries. Such movements cause the
magma to force its ways upwards through vents in the earth’s crust. Eventually, the magma pours onto the
earth’s surface as lava.
EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES:
LAVA: Lava is magma that reaches the surface. This liquefied rock is many times hotter than boiling water and
glows bright yellow, orange, and red. Some lava cools quickly, on or near the volcano, but more fluid lava may
travel for kilometres before slowly harden into rock.
PYROCLASTIC MATERIAL: All fragments thrown into the air by a volcanic eruption are called pyroclastic
material. During a violent eruption, the force of the blast sends super hot gas and millions of pieces of lava into
the air. It travels at a speed of 500km/hr with the tem.7000C
GASES: The gaseous substances are mainly composed of steam, hydrochloric acid, ammonium chloride,
sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide.
Ash clouds – the weight of the falling ash can collapse building and destroy crops. It reduces sunlight by
blocking out the sun and even causes problems for air travel
Tsunami and acid rain – tsunami also occur when there is volcanic eruption in the ocean and acid rain due to
large amount of elements emission in the air.
Types of Volcanoes
a. Composite volcano: A large cone-shaped with a steep slopes. The beautifully symmetrical cones of Fuji
in Japan and Mayon in the Philippines are the examples. The Strato or composite volcanoes are the
highest and steepest volcanoes in the world.
b. Shield volcanoes: A cone-shaped with gentle slopes and wide bases, because they release fluid lava
slowly. These volcanoes can create huge landforms.
Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii are classic examples.
c. Acid Lava Dome Volcano: Dome-shaped with steep convex slopes. The lava flows from a central vent,
cool and solidifies quickly
d. Fissure eruption: Under certain circumstances, instead of issuing from a central vent, lava pours out
along cracks, or fissures, that may extend for several kilometres across the land surface. Flows of this
sort have created thick sheets of basalt covering thousands of square kilometres. The Deccan Plateau
in India and the Columbia Plateau in the northwest United States are the example.
DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
1. CIRCUM PACIFIC BELT: The majority of the world’s active volcanoes occur along the plate boundaries. The
most important belt of volcanoes is the so called the Ring of Fire. This belt is more or less surrounds the Pacific
Ocean. Nearly 66% of the active volcanoes lie in this belt. It is co-incidental with the belt of earthquakes. It runs
through the young fold mountains of the Rockies, and the Andes in North and South Americas and along the
eastern coastal areas and islands of East Asia. Mayon, Fuji are some examples. The Ring of Fire extends through
the Andes of South America, Central America, Mexico, the Cascade Mountain of Western USA. Volcano like
Cotopaxi, Katmai, Fujiyama etc are located in this belt.
2. Atlantic Belt: Another belt runs north-south through the Atlantic and accordingly is known as Atlantic belt. It
extends from Jan Mayen Island in the north to the Cape Verde Island in the south. Volcano like Mt. Pelee, St.
Helena, Mt. Hekla etc are located.
3. Mediterranean Himalayan belt: Another volcanic belt is the Mediterranean Himalayan belt extending east-
west from the Alps via the Apennines to the Caucasus and the mountain of Asia minor. Volcanoes like Vesuvius,
Etna, Mount Ararat are located in this belt.
Usefulness of Volcanoes:
1. Fertile volcanic soils such as those found in Java, Indonesia, are excellent for growing crops.
2. Valuable minerals and precious stones such as gold, diamonds, copper and silver are found in volcanic rocks.
E.g: diamond and copper mining are found in Kimberley in South Africa and Bougainville in Papua New Guinea.
3. Interesting volcanic landforms can lead to the development of the tourism industry which is an important
source of revenue. Mount Fuji in Japan, hot springs in Rotorua, New Zeland.
4. Geothermal energy is an important source of clean energy for generating electricity like in New Zealand,
Japan, Italy, USA etc.

EARTHQUAKES-
An earthquake is a sudden shaking or vibration in the Earth’s crust. The vibrations in the form of seismic waves
occur when tectonic energy that has built up over time by plate movement is released rapidly. The crust is
divided into sections, called plates, which continually move in relation to each other and are bordered by
faults. When plates suddenly move past each other, the built-up strain is released along the fault, and the rock
fractures. An earthquake also can be triggered by molten rock moving up into the chamber of a volcano before
eruption.
Cause of Earthquake
The tectonic variety is by far the most devastating. According to the theory of plate tectonics, tectonic quakes
occur at the boundaries of the plates, where one plate slides past or beneath another. Tectonic earthquakes
occur in a variety of geological settings.
 Majority of the earth quakes occur along the fracture line, where slipping and settling down of rock
masses takes place.
 When rocks can bear no more stress, breaking with sudden displacement of the rocks on two sides of
the fault takes place. It produces a blow to the upper rocks on one side of the fault-plane and to the
lower rocks on the other side.
 Humans activities may contribute to the cause of earthquakes through a variety of activities such as
filling new reservoirs, detonating underground atomic explosives, or pumping fluids deep into the
ground through wells.
For example, in 1962 Denver, Colorado, in the United States began to experience earthquakes.
An epicentre is the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the underground source, or focus, of an
earthquake. The impact of the earthquake is usually strongest near the epicentre.
EFFECTS OF EARTH QUAKES.
Apart from the immediate destruction of life and property, EQ bring about several changes in the earth’s crust.
1. Cracks and fissures develop in the surface of the rock strata due to which new springs may appear on the
surface or old may disappear.
2. If these cracks develop in hilly areas they result in landslides.
3. The rivers may change their courses, if fissures develop in their beds.
4. When an EQ affects the ocean floor, great sea waves which are known as TSUNAMIES spread outwards
5. Contraction of the rock strata takes place.
6. It may form depressions forming lakes.
7. Due to uplift and subsidence some wells may become dry while others get more water.
DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
No place on the earth’s surface is totally free from earthquakes. But the earthquakes occur more frequently in
certain areas. These areas are the weak and unstable parts of the crust.
The Circum Pacific belt: This belt encircles the pacific Ocean and follows the western coast of North and South
America, the Aleutian islands and Islands of the eastern coast of Asia like Japan and Philippines. Nearly 68% of
the earth quakes of the world originate in this belt.
Mid World Mountain belt: This belt is associated with the young fold mountain ranges of the Alps, The
Himalayas and their continuation in the south-east Asian islands. Nearly 21% of the earthquakes of the world
originate in this belt.
Mid-ocean ridges are the sites of numerous such events of moderate intensity:
Tectonic earthquakes also occur in a zone stretching from the Mediterranean and Caspian seas to the
Himalayas, and ending in the Bay of Bengal.
Fold-Mountains distribution: Generally, Fold Mountains are found near destructive plate boundaries on
coastlines and they are a liner formation. When two plates collide, the compressional force put the rock layers
pressure. Eventually, they bend and fold. They are created by the uplift and folding of tectonic plates as they
move towards each and collide. Eg: the Himalayas and the Alps. Eg: Himalaya. ‘Young fold mountains’ and
the ‘old fold mountains’ over 200 million years old. The Ural Mountains are over 250 million years old.

Richter Scale Mercalli Scale

2.5 Generally not felt, but recorded on seismometers
I. Felt by almost no one
II. Felt by very few people
3.5 Felt by many people
III. Tremor notice by many, but they often do not realize it is earthquake
IV. Felt indoor by many. Feels like a truck has struck the building
V. Felt by nearly everyone; many people awakened. Swaying trees and poles may be observed.
4.5 Some local damage may occur
VI. Felt by all; many people run outdoors. Furniture moved, slight damage occurs.
VII. Everyone runs outdoors. Poorly built structures considerably damaged; slight damage elsewhere.
6.0 A destructive earthquake
VIII. Specially designed structures damaged slightly, others collapse.
IX. All buildings considerably damaged, many shift off foundations. Noticeable cracks in ground
7.0 A major earthquake
X. Many structures destroyed. Ground is badly cracked
8.0 and above Great earthquake
XI. Almost all structures fall. Bridges wrecked. Very wide cracks in ground.
XII. Total destruction. Waves seen on ground.

2.2, Rivers
Key term to understand about the river system:
 Hydrologic cycle- the continuous recycling of water between atmosphere and land surface.
 Evaporation- water is heated by sun and rises up the sky as water vapour.
 Transpiration- the loss of moisture from plants and leaves to the atmosphere.
 Condensation- the cooling down of water vapour into water droplets to form clouds.
 Precipitation- all form of water released from clouds/atmosphere such as rain, snow, hail.
 Surface runoff- the flow of water across the surface of the land.
 Interception- natural or manmade objects get into the way(fall) of rain.(trees, buildings)
 Percolation/Infiltration- the soaring down of water into the soil.
 Ground water flow- the movement of water through the rocks and soil.
 Through flow- the flow of water towards sea or lake through the soil.
 Water table- the level of saturated ground/ground water in the soil.
 River source- the starting point of a river.
 Tributaries- the streams which contribute water to the main channel.
 Distributaries- the streams which distribute water from the main channel
 River mouth/Estuary- the end point of a river.
 Delta- the triangular shaped deposition at the mouth of a river.
 Confluence- the point at which two rivers merge.
 Load- the materials carried by the river.
 Drainage basin- the area coming under the influence of a particular river.
 Water shed- the boundary between two drainage basins.
 Catchment area- the area from which the river collects its water.
 Estuary- the partially submerged delta at the mouth.
Flood Hydrograph - the graph which shows how a storm affects a stream or
river over a short period of time.
Stream of water that flows along a channel from the highlands to the lowlands is known as river. The great
majority of rivers eventually discharge into either the sea or a lake, although some rivers disappear due to
water loss through seepage into the ground and evaporation into the air. The development of a river valley is
the combined effect of river erosion, transportation and deposition.
Parts of the River systems:
 River systems – the main river, its tributaries and distributaries is known as river system
 Tributaries – small streams which flow into a larger stream or river
 Distributaries - newly created stream channels that are separated from the larger main stream channel
in a delta
Drainage basin – the area drained by a river system is called a drainage basin or catchment area.
Watershed – the stretch of land that forms the boundary around a drainage basin and separates it from
another is called watershed.

Importance of River
1. River is an important an important agents that shape the landscapes of the earth, river also have a great
impact on human activities.
2. Rivers are important transportation routes that facilitate trade and communication.
3. River is also linking the regions with indigenous population, enabling cultural exchanges of social and
historical significance.
4. Some rivers also function as important political boundaries between boundaries. For example, the Danube
forms most of the borders of Bulgaria and Romania.
5. Rivers are important source of fresh water. In countries such as China, India and Indonesia, many rural areas
have no access to treated and safe drinking water and depend on water from rivers and wells.
6. Rivers are important for irrigation and industrial purposes.
Hydrological Cycle

1. Evaporation - water is stored in the seas as a liquid. High temperature and warm winds change the liquid
water into gas (water vapour) which rises into the atmosphere.
2. Evapotranspiration - vegetation not only intercepts rainfall but also take it up through roots from the soil.
This water is eventually returned to the atmosphere by transpiration from leaves. Surface water is also
evaporated from leaves.
3. Condensation – as water vapour is blown towards mountain by the prevailing wind it is forced to rise, cools
and condensed back into water droplets. These form clouds and relief (orographic) rainfall or snow.
4. Interceptions – some rainfall is intercepted by plants and trees before reaching the ground. Some falls on
the land and infiltrates the ground or flows on the surface as small fast- flowing streams.
5. Overland flow – upland streams flow downhill and join at confluences to form slower – moving wider,
deeper rivers which eventually discharge the water into lakes or the sea.
Course of the River
The course of the river can be divided into three parts:
1. Upper course
2. Middle course
3. Lower course.

Upper course-
This is where the river begins. Many smaller streams and channels join up to form larger streams. Several
streams join up to form a river. The river in this course flows along the steep gradient but the volume of
water is small. The velocity of the river is great due to which it has a corrosive power and starts excavating its
own bed.
Middle course-
River starts to meander. Many tributaries join the river. Middle-course river processes are dominated by lateral
rather than vertical erosion and by sediment transport. The majority of sediment is transported as suspended
load, and the sediment becomes finer. Coarser cobbles and pebbles derived from upland erosion are largely
deposited. The valley is wider than in the upper course, the sides are less steep, and the channel is bordered by
a floodplain.
Lower course-
Meanders are common. Many distributaries. River flows towards its mouth and enters the sea Delta may form
at the river mouth. Lower course river processes are dominated by sediment deposition, or
storage, and floodplain building. Sediment is deposited during lateral shifting by the channel (or channels, in
the case of braided rivers), and during flood flows.
Speed of Flow
Gradient of river
Steeper slope – faster speed of flow
Gentler slope – slower speed of flow
Texture of river, bed and bank-
Rougher river bed and river banks – more friction – slower speed of flow.
Smoother river bed and river banks – Less friction – faster speed of flow
Depth of Channel-
Greater depth of channel – less friction from the channel boundaries
– faster speed of flow
Shallower depth of channel – more friction from the channel
boundaries – slower speed of flow
Wetted Perimeter
Greater wetted perimeter – more friction – slower speed of flow
Smaller wetted perimeter – less friction – faster speed of flow
River Processes
a. River Erosion (river erosion is the wearing down of the banks and bed of river and removal of the
eroded materials by the action of gravity and flowing water)
A river can erode materials in four main ways – Hydraulic action, abrasion (corrasion), attrition and solution
(corrosion)
b. Hydraulic action – hydraulic action refers to the action of the flowing water that hits against the river
banks and river bed.
c. Abrasion/Corrasion – Abrasion is an Erosional process whereby the river uses its load, e.g. rock
fragments, to constantly scrap and grind against the channels’ wall and bed.
d. Attrition – this is the process whereby rock fragments carried by the water knock against each other.
(sediments in the river rub against one another and become smaller, smoother and more rounded).
e. Corrosion/Solution – this process occurs when water in the river reacts chemically with the minerals in
the rocks and dissolves them to form a solution. It is most common in limestone areas.
River Transportation – eroded materials are carried by the moving water down the river course through the
process of transportation. This materials transported are known as the river load.
a. Traction – this process occurs when there are large boulders that are too heavy to be lifted up by the
water in the river, so they roll and slide along the river bed.
b. Saltation – this process occurs when larger particles such as gravel are part of the river load. These
particles are too heavy to be suspended in water all the time and they bounce or hop along the river
bed.
c. Suspension – Suspended materials are fine particles that are kept from settling down on the river bed
by the turbulent flow of water.
d. Solution – this takes place when readily soluble rocks such as those found in limestone areas are
dissolved in water to form solution which is transported downstream.
River deposition – a river may deposit its load anywhere along its course when the volume of flow is reduced
or the speed of flow is decreased. The coarser and heavier load will be transported throughout the river
systems to the sea or lake into which the river empties.
Land forms and features
1. Erosional Landforms
a) Gorge: A gorge is a narrow valley with steep sides. Usually smaller than a canyon, it commonly forms when a
river cuts downwards into its channel more quickly than it erodes the valley walls.
b) Canyon: A canyon is a deep narrow valley with steep sides, usually wider and longer than a gorge. Canyons
usually form in arid mountainous regions and are the result of erosion caused by rivers and heavy rains.
c) Rapids: Rapids are a stretch of a river where the water flows fast and usually over or around rocks. The swift
current results from a slight steepening of the stream bed or a narrowing of the channel.
d) Water fall: A waterfall is a place in a river where the water descends abruptly. It forms where the river flows
from a resistant rock layer into a less resistant layer. The softer rock is eroded by the water, creating a drop in
the riverbed. The highest waterfall in the world, Angel Falls which is 979 m.
e) ‘V’ shaped valley: These valleys come into existence in the upper course of the river due to its downward
cutting. The river valley becomes deep. Along with the river, different agents of weathering also play an
important role in its formation. Due to these agents the sides of valleys are weathered and the resultant rock
materials are carried to the river, with the action of gravity. Thus these river valleys are wide at the top while
their floors remain narrow.
Eg. Western Ghats (India).
f) Pot Holes: These features develop in the areas of the beds of the rivers have a number of joints and cracks.
The larger fragments carried by the river erode joints more easily and rapidly forming small depressions. The
rock fragments get caught in it and with the swift flow of river a grinding circular action is set up due to which
the floor becomes deeper and wider while the neck remains smaller Ex. River Mutha.
2. Depositional Landforms
a) Flood plain: An area of low relief that is inundated by water when the river floods, and which is covered in
alluvium. When the river floods, the flood water spreads over a large low-lying area. It carries a large load and
deposit when the flood water recedes very slowly without disturbing the deposited material. This
process is continues during each flood time and thus vast depositional plains come into existence along both
banks of the river.
b) Levees: During the flood, the finer particles are carried over long distances but the larger fragments are
deposited along the banks of the river. Thus, natural embankments come into existence along the banks of the
river due to their deposition. They are known as Levees. They are mainly made up of coarse material brought
down by the river and thus are not very firm.
c) Meanders: meanders occur when a river twists and turns, and form hoop-like bends. The river usually bends
and turns to avoid obstacles and find the easiest route down the slope. At this stage, usually no depostional
landform is formed because the river carries little, if any load and the flow is too swift for deposition to take
place. Each meander consists of an outer concave band and an inner convex bank. As the river flows around
the bend, the current is faster and stronger on the concave bank. Hence, erosion by undercutting takes place
on the that bank. On the convex bank, the flow is slower and weaker and this results in deposition. The
meanders is named after the Büyük Meanders, a river in Southwestern Turkey. Occasionally, a meander bend is
destroyed when a particularly large flood or a change in upstream alignment causes the river to cut through
the point bar. This leaves a reach of abandoned channel with a meander scar at the site of the former river cliff.
d) OX-BOW lake: Lowland meandering rivers are more twisting than their middle course counterparts and
channels may become so twisted and bends. Deposition at convex banks and erosion at the concave banks
become narrower in meander’s neck over time. During the flood, the river cuts through the narrow
neck of land separating the ends of the bend. This is known as a neck cut-off. Abandoned bends are
characteristically horseshoe-shaped and form the oxbow lakes.
e) Alluvial fan: Where a river is heavily loaded with sediment from a steep upper course on the mountains,
abundant of sediments are deposited, which blocks and diverts the channel to form an alluvial fan. The Kosi
River in India has one of the largest alluvial fans in the world, which is situated where the river leaves the
Himalaya to enter the wide floodplain of the Ganges.
f) Delta: A delta is a triangular or fan-shaped deposit of sediment that forms at a river’s mouth where that river
flows into an ocean, lake, or slower river. As a river enters another body of water, its current slows and the
sediment carried by the current is deposited. If ocean currents are strong enough, the sediment may be
swept away, preventing a large delta from forming. The triangular shape resembles the Greek letter delta; the
term was first used by the Greek historian Herodotus in the 5th century BC to describe the Nile delta. The
triangular shape and the great width at the base are due to blocking of the river mouth by silt, with resulting
continual formation of distributaries at angles to the original course. Deltas are usually characterized by highly
fertile soil. The combined delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers in India, and the deltas of the Nile in
Egypt and the Mississippi in the United States are the world's largest.