Protection Basics

Presented by
John S. Levine, P.E.
Levine Lectronics and Lectric, Inc.
770 565-1556
John@L-3.com

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Protection Fundamentals

By
John Levine
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Outline

Introductions
Tools
Enervista Launchpad
On Line Store
Demo Relays at Levine

ANSI number
Training CDs
Protection Fundamentals
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Objective
We are here to help make your job easier.
This is very informal and designed around
Applications. Please ask question. We
are not here to preach to you.
The knowledge base in the room varies
greatly. If you have a question, there is a
good chance there are 3 or 4 other people
that have the same question. Please ask
it.
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Tools

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Demo Relays at L-3

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Relays at L-3

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GE Multilin Training CDs

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ANSI Symbols

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Conversion of Electro-Mechanical
to Electronic sheet

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PowerPoint presentations at:

http://l-3.com/private/ieee/

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Protection Fundamentals

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Desirable Protection Attributes

Reliability: System operate properly
Security: Dont trip when you shouldnt
Dependability: Trip when you should

Selectivity: Trip the minimal amount to clear the

fault or abnormal operating condition

Speed: Usually the faster the better in terms of

minimizing equipment damage and maintaining
system integrity
Simplicity: KISS
Economics: Dont break the bank
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Art & Science of Protection

Selection of protective relays requires compromises:

Maximum and Reliable protection at minimum

equipment cost

High Sensitivity to faults and insensitivity to maximum

load currents

High-speed fault clearance with correct selectivity

Selectivity in isolating small faulty area

Ability to operate correctly under all predictable power

system conditions

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Art & Science of Protection

Cost of protective relays should be balanced
against risks involved if protection is not
sufficient and not enough redundancy.
Primary objectives is to have faulted zones
primary protection operate first, but if there are
protective relays failures, some form of
backup protection is provided.
Backup protection is local (if local primary
protection fails to clear fault) and remote (if
remote protection fails to operate to clear
fault)

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Primary Equipment & Components

Transformers - to step up or step down voltage level
Breakers - to energize equipment and interrupt fault current
to isolate faulted equipment
Insulators - to insulate equipment from ground and other
phases
Isolators (switches) - to create a visible and permanent
isolation of primary equipment for maintenance purposes
and route power flow over certain buses.
Bus - to allow multiple connections (feeders) to the same
source of power (transformer).
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Primary Equipment & Components

Grounding - to operate and maintain equipment safely
Arrester - to protect primary equipment of sudden
overvoltage (lightning strike).
Switchgear integrated components to switch, protect,
meter and control power flow

Reactors - to limit fault current (series) or compensate for

charge current (shunt)
VT and CT - to measure primary current and voltage and
supply scaled down values to P&C, metering, SCADA, etc.
Regulators - voltage, current, VAR, phase angle, etc.
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Types of Protection
Overcurrent
Uses current to determine magnitude of fault

Simple
May employ definite time or inverse time curves
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination stacks)
Inexpensive
May use various polarizing voltages or ground current
for directionality
Communication aided schemes make more selective

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Instantaneous Overcurrent Protection (IOC) &

Definite Time Overcurrent
Relay closest to fault operates
first
Relays closer to source
operate slower
Time between operating for
same current is called CTI
(Clearing Time Interval)

Distribution
Substation
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(TOC) Coordination
Relay closest to fault operates
first
Relays closer to source
operate slower
Time between operating for
same current is called CTI

Distribution
Substation
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Time Overcurrent Protection (TOC)

Selection of the curves
uses what is termed as a
time multiplier or
time dial to effectively
shift the curve up or
down on the time axis

Operate region lies

above selected curve,
while no-operate region
lies below it
Inverse curves can
approximate fuse curve
shapes

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Time Overcurrent Protection

(51, 51N, 51G)

Multiples of pick-up
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Types of Protection
Differential
current in = current out
Simple
Very fast
Very defined clearing area
Expensive
Practical distance limitations
Line differential systems overcome this using
digital communications
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Differential
Note CT polarity
dots
This is a
through-current
representation
Perfect
waveforms, no
saturation
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Differential
Note CT
polarity dots
This is an
internal fault
representation
Perfect
waveforms, no
saturation
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Types of Protection
Voltage
Uses voltage to infer fault or abnormal
condition
May employ definite time or inverse time
curves
May also be used for undervoltage load
shedding
Simple
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed (coordination
stacks)
Inexpensive
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Types of Protection
Frequency
Uses frequency of voltage to detect power
balance condition
May employ definite time or inverse time
curves
Used for load shedding & machinery
under/overspeed protection
Simple
May be slow
Selectivity at the cost of speed can be expensive

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Types of Protection
Power
Uses voltage and current to determine
power flow magnitude and direction
Typically definite time
Complex
May be slow
Accuracy important for many applications
Can be expensive

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Types of Protection
Distance (Impedance)
Uses voltage and current to determine impedance of
fault
Set on impedance [R-X] plane
Uses definite time
Impedance related to distance from relay
Complicated
Fast
Somewhat defined clearing area with reasonable
accuracy
Expensive
Communication aided schemes make more selective
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Impedance

ZL

Relay in Zone 1 operates first

Time between Zones is called
CTI
R

ZB

T2
ZA

T1

21

21

Source

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Generation-typically at 4-20kV
Transmission-typically at 230-765kV

Typical
Bulk
Power
System

Receives power from transmission system and

transforms into subtransmission level
Subtransmission-typically at 69-161kV

Receives power from subtransmission system

and transforms into primary feeder voltage
Distribution network-typically 2.4-69kV

Low voltage (service)-typically 120-600V

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Protection Zones
1. Generator or Generator-Transformer Units
2. Transformers
3. Buses
4. Lines (transmission and distribution)

5. Utilization equipment (motors, static loads, etc.)

6. Capacitor or reactor (when separately protected)
Bus zone
Unit Generator-Tx zone

Bus zone
Line zone

Bus zone
Motor zone

Transformer zone

Transformer zone

~
Generator

XFMR

Bus

Line

Bus

XFMR

Bus

Motor

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Zone Overlap
1.

Overlap is accomplished by the locations of CTs, the key source for

protective relays.

2.

In some cases a fault might involve a CT or a circuit breaker itself, which

means it can not be cleared until adjacent breakers (local or remote) are
opened.

Relay Zone A

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Relay Zone A

Zone B

Zone A

Relay Zone B

Zone B

CTs are located at both sides of CB-

CTs are located at one side of CB-

fault between CTs is cleared from both remote

sides

fault between CTs is sensed by both relays,

remote right side operate only.

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What Info is Required to Apply Protection

1. One-line diagram of the system or area involved
2. Impedances and connections of power equipment, system
frequency, voltage level and phase sequence
3. Existing schemes
4. Operating procedures and practices affecting protection
5. Importance of protection required and maximum allowed
clearance times
6. System fault studies
7. Maximum load and system swing limits
8. CTs and VTs locations, connections and ratios
9. Future expansion expectance
10. Any special considerations for application.
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C37.2:
Device
Numbers
Partial listing

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One Line Diagram

Non-dimensioned diagram showing how
pieces of electrical equipment are
connected
Simplification of actual system
Equipment is shown as boxes, circles and
other simple graphic symbols
Symbols should follow ANSI or IEC
conventions
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1-Line Symbols [1]

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1-Line Symbols [2]

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1-Line Symbols [3]

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1-Line Symbols [4]

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1-Line [1]

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1-Line [2]

3-Line

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CB Trip Circuit (Simplified)

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Lock Out Relay

PR

86b
86
TC

86a

86b

Shown in RESET position

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CB Coil Circuit Monitoring:

T with CB Closed; C with CB Opened

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CB Coil Circuit Monitoring:

Both T&C Regardless of CB state

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Current Transformers
Current transformers are used to step primary system currents
to values usable by relays, meters, SCADA, transducers, etc.
CT ratios are expressed as primary to secondary; 2000:5, 1200:5,
600:5, 300:5
A 2000:5 CT has a CTR of 400

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Standard IEEE CT Relay

Accuracy
IEEE relay class is defined in terms of the voltage a CT
can deliver at 20 times the nominal current rating
without exceeding a 10% composite ratio error.
For example, a relay class of C100 on a 1200:5 CT means that
the CT can develop 100 volts at 24,000 primary amps
(1200*20) without exceeding a 10% ratio error. Maximum
burden = 1 ohm.
100 V = 20 * 5 * (1ohm)
200 V = 20 * 5 * (2 ohms)
400 V = 20 * 5 * (4 ohms)
800 V = 20 * 5 * (8 ohms)
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Standard IEEE CT Burdens (5 Amp)

(Per IEEE Std. C57.13-1993)

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Voltage Transformers
Voltage (potential) transformers are used to isolate and step
down and accurately reproduce the scaled voltage for the
protective device or relay
VT ratios are typically expressed as primary to secondary;
14400:120, 7200:120
A 4160:120 VT has a VTR of 34.66

VP
VS
Relay

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Typical CT/VT Circuits

Courtesy of Blackburn, Protective Relay: Principles and Applications

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CT/VT Circuit vs. Casing Ground

Case

Secondary Circuit

Case ground made at IT location

Secondary circuit ground made at first point of
use

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Equipment Grounding
Prevents shock exposure of personnel
Provides current carrying capability for the
ground-fault current
Grounding includes design and construction of
substation ground mat and CT and VT safety
grounding

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System Grounding
Limits overvoltages
Limits difference in electric potential through local
area conducting objects
Several methods

Ungrounded
Reactance Coil Grounded
High Z Grounded
Low Z Grounded
Solidly Grounded
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System Grounding
1. Ungrounded: There is no intentional
ground applied to the systemhowever its grounded through
natural capacitance. Found in 2.415kV systems.

2. Reactance Grounded: Total system

capacitance is cancelled by equal
inductance. This decreases the
current at the fault and limits voltage
across the arc at the fault to decrease
damage.

X0 <= 10 * X1

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System Grounding
3. High Resistance Grounded: Limits
ground fault current to 10A-20A.
Used to limit transient overvoltages
due to arcing ground faults.
R0 <= X0C/3, X0C is capacitive zero
sequence reactance

4. Low Resistance Grounded: To limit

current to 25-400A
R0 >= 2X0

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System Grounding

5. Solidly Grounded: There is a

connection of transformer or
generator neutral directly to station
ground.
Effectively Grounded: R0 <= X1, X0
<= 3X1, where R is the system
fault resistance

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Basic Current Connections:

How System is Grounded
Determines How Ground Fault is Detected

Medium/High
Resistance
Ground

Low/No
Resistance
Ground

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Substation Types
Single Supply

Multiple Supply
Mobile Substations for emergencies

Types are defined by number of

transformers, buses, breakers to provide

adequate service for application

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Industrial Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

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Industrial Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

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Utility Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

Single Bus, 1 Tx, Dual supply

Single Bus, 2 Tx, Dual

Supply

2-sections Bus with HS Tie-Breaker,

2 Tx, Dual Supply
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Utility Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

Bus
1

Bus 2

Breaker-and-a-half allows reduction of

equipment cost by using 3 breakers for
each 2 circuits. For load transfer and
operation is simple, but relaying is
complex as middle breaker is responsible
to both circuits

Ring bus advantage that one

breaker per circuit. Also each
outgoing circuit (Tx) has 2 sources
of supply. Any breaker can be taken
from service without disrupting
others.
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Utility Substation Arrangements

(Typical)

Main bus
Aux. bus
Main
Reserve

Transfer

Tie
breaker

Bus 1

Bus 2

Double Bus: Upper Main and

Transfer, bottom Double Main bus

Main-Reserved and Transfer

Bus: Allows maintenance of any
bus and any breaker

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Switchgear Defined
Assemblies containing electrical switching,
protection, metering and management devices
Used in three-phase, high-power industrial,
commercial and utility applications
Covers a variety of actual uses, including motor
control, distribution panels and outdoor
switchyards
The term "switchgear" is plural, even when
referring to a single switchgear assembly (never
say, "switchgears")
May be a described in terms of use:
"the generator switchgear"
"the stamping line switchgear"

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Switchgear Examples

A Good Day in System

Protection
CTs and VTs bring electrical info to relays
Relays sense current and voltage and declare
fault
Relays send signals through control circuits to
circuit breakers
Circuit breaker(s) correctly trip

What Could Go Wrong Here????

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A Bad Day in System

Protection
CTs or VTs are shorted, opened, or their wiring is
Relays do not declare fault due to setting errors,
faulty relay, CT saturation
Control wires cut or batteries dead so no signal is
sent from relay to circuit breaker
Circuit breakers do not have power, burnt trip coil
or otherwise fail to trip

Protection Systems Typically are

Designed for N-1
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Protection Performance Statistics

Correct and desired: 92.2%

Correct but undesired: 5.3%
Incorrect: 2.1%
Fail to trip: 0.4%

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Contribution to Faults

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Fault Types (Shunt)

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AC & DC Current Components

of Fault Current

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Useful Conversions

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Per Unit System

Establish two base quantities:

Standard practice is to define

Base power 3 phase
Base voltage line to line
Other quantities derived with basic power
equations
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Per Unit Basics

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Short Circuit Calculations

Per Unit System
Per Unit Value =

Actual Quantity
Base Quantity

Vpu = Vactual
Vbase
Ipu = Iactual
Ibase
Zpu = Zactual
Zbase

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Short Circuit Calculations

Per Unit System

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Short Circuit Calculations

Per Unit System Base Conversion
Zbase = kV

Zpu = Zactual
Zbase
Zpu1 = MVAbase1

kV

2
base1

2
base

MVAbase

Zactual

Zpu2 = MVAbase2

2
base1 x
kV 2base2

Zpu2 =Zpu1 x kV

kV

X
2
base2

Zactual

MVAbase2
MVAbase1
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A Study of a Fault.

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Arc Flash Hazard

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Protective Relaying Methods

of Reducing Arc Flash Hazard
Bus differential protection (this
reduces the arc flash energy by
reducing the clearing time
Zone interlock schemes where
bus relay selectively is allowed
to trip or block depending on
location of faults as identified
from feeder relays
Temporary setting changes to
reduce clearing time during
maintenance

FlexCurve for improved

coordination opportunities
Employ 51VC/VR on feeders
fed from small generation to
improve sensitivity and
coordination
Employ UV light detectors with
current disturbance detectors
for selective gear tripping

Sacrifices coordination

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Arc Flash Hazards

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Arc Pressure Wave

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Copy of this presentation are at:

www.L-3.com\private\IEEE

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Protection Fundamentals

QUESTIONS?
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