Addis Ababa University

Faculty of Informatics
Department of Computer Science

Networking Protocols

2.1 Network Protocols

a protocol is a set of rules that governs data

communications

a protocol defines what is communicated, how it is

communicated, and when it is communicated

for instance, for one computer to send a message to

another computer, the first computer must perform the
following general steps

break the data into small sections called packets

add addressing information to the packets identifying the
destination computer
deliver the data to the network card for transmission
over the network

the receiving computer must perform the same steps, but in

reverse order

accept the data from the NIC

remove transmitting information that was added by the

transmitting computer

reassemble the packets of data in to the original

message
the key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and
timing

syntax: refers to the structure or format of the data

semantics: refers to the meaning of each section of bits

timing: refers to when data should be sent and how fast

they can be sent
functions of protocols

each device must perform the same steps the same way
so that the data will arrive and reassemble properly; if
one device uses a protocol with different steps, the two
devices will not be able to communicate with each other
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the following are categories of functions that form the basis

of protocols

encapsulation

segmentation and reassembly

connection control

addressing

multiplexing

transmission services
Encapsulation

the inclusion of control information to data is called

encapsulation. Each frame contains not only data but also
control information

such control information falls into three categories:

address (sender/receiver), error-detecting code and
protocol control (information about protocol functions)

1.

2.

Segmentation (by the sender) and reassembly (by the receiver)

a block of data for transmission is of some bounded size

at the application level, we refer to a logical unit of data

transfer as a message

lower level protocols may need to break the data up into

blocks of some bounded size

this process is called segmentation

reasons for segmentation:

the communication network may only accept blocks of

data up to a certain size

error control may be more efficient with a smaller frame

size; fewer bits need to be retransmitted when a frame
gets corrupted

facilitates more equitable access to shared transmission

facilities (for example, without maximum block size one
station could monopolize a multipoint medium)
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disadvantages

since a frame contains certain amount of control

information, the smaller the block size, the greater the
percentage overhead

frame arrivals may generate an interrupt that must be

serviced; hence smaller blocks result in more interrupts

more time is spent processing smaller, more numerous

frames

the counterpart of segmentation is reassembly

on receipt, the segmented data must be reassembled in to a

message appropriate to the application by the receiving
device

3.

Connection control

two types of protocols (services)

connectionless service

the packets are sent from one party to another with no

need for connection establishment or connection
release

the packets are not numbered, they may be delayed,

lost, or arrive out of sequence; there is no
acknowledgement either

UDP, one of the transport layer protocols, is

connectionless

e.g., audio and video

connection-oriented service

in connection-oriented data transfer, a logical

association or connection is established between the
communicating computers (devices)
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three phases are involved

connection establishment (agreement to exchange

data)

data transfer (data and control information

exchanged)

connection termination (termination request) - by

any of the two parties
TCP is connection-oriented
the key characteristics of connection oriented data
transfer is that sequencing is used
each side sequentially numbers the frames that it
sends to the other side
because each side remembers that it is engaged in a
logical connection, it can keep track of both outgoing
numbers, which it generates, and incoming numbers
which are generated by the other side
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sequencing supports three main functions

ordered delivery: frames may not arrive in the order in
which they were sent, because they may traverse different
paths

flow control: a receiving station has to limit the amount or

rate of data that is sent by a transmitting station

the simplest form of flow control is stop and wait

procedure in which each frame must be acknowledged
before the next can be sent
more efficient protocols involve some form of credit
provided to the transmitter, which is the amount of
frames that can be transmitted without an
acknowledgement; e.g. sliding window technique

error control: error control is implemented as two separate

functions; error detection and retransmission

if an error is detected, the receiver discards the frame

upon failing to receive an acknowledgement to the frame

in a specified reasonable time, the sender retransmits
the frame

some protocols also employ error correction which

enables the receiver not only to detect errors but, in
some cases, to correct them
addressing

a unique address is associated with each end-system (e.g.

workstation, server) and each intermediate system (e.g.
router) in a configuration

an example is an IP address in TCP/IP connection

4.

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5.

6.

multiplexing

occurs when multiple connections share a single

connection (multiple access)
transmission services

a variety of additional services can be provided

priority: messages such as control messages may need to

get through to the destination station with minimum delay

security: security mechanisms, restricting access, may be

invoked
Protocols in a layered architecture

protocols that work together to provide a layer or layers of

the model are/is known as a protocol stack or suite, e.g.
TCP/IP

each layer handles a different part of the communications

process and has its own protocol
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THE NEED FOR STANDARDS

Over the past years many of the networks that were built
used different hardware and software implementations, as a
result they were incompatible and it became difficult for
networks using different specifications to communicate
with each other.

To address the problem of networks being incompatible and

unable to communicate with each other, the International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) researched various
network schemes.

The ISO recognised there was a need to create a NETWORK

MODEL that would help vendors create interoperable
network implementations.

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THE NEED FOR STANDARDS

In 1984 in order to aid network interconnection without

necessarily requiring complete redesign, the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications architecture.

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THE OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The model was developed by the International Organisation for

Standardisation (ISO) in 1984. It is now considered the primary Architectural

model for inter-computer communications.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a descriptive

network scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability
between various types of network technologies.

The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from

application programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium

(such as wire) to another application programme located on another
network.

The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information

between computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more
manageable problems .

This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as

layering.

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A LAYERED NETWORK MODEL

The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers,

each specifying particular network functions.

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THE SEVEN OSI REFERENCE MODEL LAYERS

The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking
into layers reduces complexity.

Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol

specification.

Each layer communicates with the same layers software or

hardware on other computers.

The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical

Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end
to end through the network.

The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation

and sessionLayers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward
services to the applications.

Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it

moves down the layers before network transit.

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LAYER 7: APPLICATION

The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the

user.
It provides network services to the users applications.

contains all the higher level protocols that are commonly

needed by users; examples are
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
the basis for the WWW - when a browser wants a Web
page, it sends the name of the page it wants to the
server using HTTP; the server then sends the page
back
TELNET - virtual terminal, to log on to a remote machine
FTP - file transfer
SMTP - e-mail
DNS - for mapping host names onto their network
addresses
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LAYER 6: PRESENTATION

The presentation layer ensures that the information

that the application layer of one system sends out is

readable by the application layer of another system.

If necessary, the presentation layer translates

between multiple data formats by using a common

format.

Provides encryption and compression of data.

Examples :- JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

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LAYER 5: SESSION

The session layer defines how to start, control and end

conversations (called sessions) between applications.

This includes the control and management of multiple bidirectional messages using dialogue control.
keeping track of whose turn it is to transmit

It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts'

presentation layers and manages their data exchange.

preventing two parties from attempting the same
critical operation at the same time

The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.

checkpointing long transmissions to allow them to
continue from where they were after a crash
Examples :- SQL, ASP(AppleTalk Session Protocol).

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LAYER 4: TRANSPORT

accepts data from above, splits it up into smaller

units if need be, passes them to the network layer,
and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the
other end

The transport layer segments data from the sending

host's system and reassembles the data into a data
stream on the receiving host's system.

Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control

Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
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LAYER 3: NETWORK

Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be
identified.

Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that
the packets can be delivered.

The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into

smaller packets to accommodate different media.

Examples :- IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

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LAYER 2: DATA LINK

The data link layer provides access to the networking media and
physical transmission across the media and this enables the data to
locate its intended destination on a network.

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical
link by using the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.

The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or
data link address in order for multiple stations to share the same
medium and still uniquely identify each other.

Concerned with network topology, network access, error

notification, ordered delivery of frames, and flow control.

Examples :- Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

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LAYER 1: PHYSICAL

The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of

the transmission medium.
It defines
mechanical: the size and shape of the network
connector, how many pins does the network
connector has and what each pin is used for
electrical: how many volts represent a 1 and how
many a 0
timing: how many nanoseconds a bit lasts
whether communication is one way or in both
directions simultaneously
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage
changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes
are defined by physical layer specifications.
Examples :- EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, BNC.

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Physical layer

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SUMMARY
There was no standard for networks in the early days and as a result it was
difficult for networks to communicate with each other.

The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) recognised this and

researched various network schemes, and in 1984
introduced the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.

The OSI reference model has standards which ensure vendors greater
compatibility and interoperability between various types of network
technologies.

The OSI reference model organizes network functions into seven numbered
layers.

Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol

specification and communicates with the same layers software or hardware

on other computers.
Layers 1-4 are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the
network and Layers 5-7 are concerned with services to the applications.
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