Module 3: Operating-System Structures
System Components
Operating System Services
System Calls
System Programs
System Structure
Virtual Machines
System Design and Implementation
System Generation
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Common System Components
Process Management
Main Memory Management
Secondary-Storage Management
I/O System Management
File Management
Protection System
Networking
Command-Interpreter System
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Process Management
A process is a program in execution. A process needs certain
resources, including CPU time, memory, files, and I/O devices, to
accomplish its task.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with process management.
Process creation and deletion.
process suspension and resumption.
Provision of mechanisms for:
process synchronization
process communication
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Main-Memory Management
Memory is a large array of words or bytes, each with its own
address. It is a repository of quickly accessible data shared by
the CPU and I/O devices.
Main memory is a volatile storage device. It loses its contents in
the case of system failure.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connections with memory management:
Keep track of which parts of memory are currently being
used and by whom.
Decide which processes to load when memory space
becomes available.
Allocate and deallocate memory space as needed.
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Secondary-Storage Management
Since main memory (primary storage) is volatile and too small to
accommodate all data and programs permanently, the computer
system must provide secondary storage to back up main memory.
Most modern computer systems use disks as the principle on-line
storage medium, for both programs and data.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connection with disk management:
Free space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
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I/O System Management
The I/O system consists of:
A buffer-caching system
A general device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
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File Management
A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator.
Commonly, files represent programs (both source and object
forms) and data.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in
connections with file management:
File creation and deletion.
Directory creation and deletion.
Support of primitives for manipulating files and directories.
Mapping files onto secondary storage.
File backup on stable (nonvolatile) storage media.
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Protection System
Protection refers to a mechanism for controlling access by
programs, processes, or users to both system and user
resources.
The protection mechanism must:
distinguish between authorized and unauthorized usage.
specify the controls to be imposed.
provide a means of enforcement.
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Networking (Distributed Systems)
A distributed system is a collection processors that do not share
memory or a clock. Each processor has its own local memory.
The processors in the system are connected through a
communication network.
A distributed system provides user access to various system
resources.
Access to a shared resource allows:
Computation speed-up
Increased data availability
Enhanced reliability
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Command-Interpreter System
Many commands are given to the operating system by control
statements which deal with:
process creation and management
I/O handling
secondary-storage management
main-memory management
file-system access
protection
networking
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Command-Interpreter System (Cont.)
The program that reads and interprets control statements is
called variously:
control-card interpreter
command-line interpreter
shell (in UNIX)
Its function is to get and execute the next command statement.
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Operating System Services
Program execution system capability to load a program into
memory and to run it.
I/O operations since user programs cannot execute I/O operations
directly, the operating system must provide some means to perform
I/O.
File-system manipulation program capability to read, write, create,
and delete files.
Communications exchange of information between processes
executing either on the same computer or on different systems tied
together by a network. Implemented via shared memory or
message passing.
Error detection ensure correct computing by detecting errors in the
CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, or in user programs.
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Additional Operating System Functions
Additional functions exist not for helping the user, but rather for
ensuring efficient system operations.
Resource allocation allocating resources to multiple users
or multiple jobs running at the same time.
Accounting keep track of and record which users use how
much and what kinds of computer resources for account
billing or for accumulating usage statistics.
Protection ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled.
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System Calls
System calls provide the interface between a running program
and the operating system.
Generally available as assembly-language instructions.
Languages defined to replace assembly language for
systems programming allow system calls to be made directly
(e.g., C. Bliss, PL/360)
Three general methods are used to pass parameters between a
running program and the operating system.
Pass parameters in registers.
Store the parameters in a table in memory, and the table
address is passed as a parameter in a register.
Push (store) the parameters onto the stack by the program,
and pop off the stack by operating system.
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Passing of Parameters As A Table
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MS-DOS Execution
At System Start-up
3.16
Running a Program
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UNIX Running Multiple Programs
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Communication Models
Msg Passing
Shared Memory
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System Programs
System programs provide a convenient environment for program
development and execution. The can be divided into:
File manipulation
Status information
File modification
Programming language support
Program loading and execution
Communications
Application programs
Most users view of the operation system is defined by system
programs, not the actual system calls.
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System Structure Simple Approach
MS-DOS written to provide the most functionality in the least
space
not divided into modules
Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not well separated
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MS-DOS Layer Structure
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System Structure Simple Approach (Cont.)
UNIX limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX
operating system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists
of two separable parts.
Systems programs
The kernel
Consists of everything below the system-call interface
and above the physical hardware
Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a
large number of functions for one level.
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UNIX System Structure
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System Structure Layered Approach
The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels),
each built on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is
the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user interface.
With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and services of only lower-level layers.
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An Operating System Layer
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Layered Structure of the THE OS
A layered design was first used in THE operating system.
Its six layers are as follows:
layer 5: user programs
layer 4: buffering for input and output
layer 3: operator-console device driver
layer 2: memory management
layer 1: CPU scheduling
layer 0: hardware
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OS/2 Layer Structure
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Virtual Machines
A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical
conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system kernel
as though they were all hardware.
A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the underlying
bare hardware.
The operating system creates the illusion of multiple processes,
each executing on its own processor with its own (virtual)
memory.
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Virtual Machines (Cont.)
The resources of the physical computer are shared to create the
virtual machines.
CPU scheduling can create the appearance that users have
their own processor.
Spooling and a file system can provide virtual card readers
and virtual line printers.
A normal user time-sharing terminal serves as the virtual
machine operators console.
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System Models
Non-virtual Machine
Virtual Machine
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Advantages/Disadvantages of Virtual Machines
The virtual-machine concept provides complete protection of
system resources since each virtual machine is isolated from all
other virtual machines. This isolation, however, permits no direct
sharing of resources.
A virtual-machine system is a perfect vehicle for operatingsystems research and development. System development is
done on the virtual machine, instead of on a physical machine
and so does not disrupt normal system operation.
The virtual machine concept is difficult to implement due to the
effort required to provide an exact duplicate to the underlying
machine.
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System Design Goals
User goals operating system should be convenient to use, easy
to learn, reliable, safe, and fast.
System goals operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient.
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Mechanisms and Policies
Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide
what will be done.
The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important
principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to be
changed later.
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System Implementation
Traditionally written in assembly language, operating systems can
now be written in higher-level languages.
Code written in a high-level language:
can be written faster.
is more compact.
is easier to understand and debug.
An operating system is far easier to port (move to some other
hardware) if it is written in a high-level language.
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System Generation (SYSGEN)
Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of
machines; the system must be configured for each specific
computer site.
SYSGEN program obtains information concering the specific
configuration of the hardware system.
Booting starting a computer by loading the kernel.
Bootstrap program code stored in ROM that is able to locate the
kernel, load it into memory, and start its execution.
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