Chapter 6

Wireless and Mobile

Networks

Computer Networking:
A Top Down Approach
4th edition.
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley, July
2007.

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-1

Chapter 6: Wireless and Mobile Networks
Background:
# wireless (mobile) phone subscribers now
exceeds # wired phone subscribers!
computer nets: laptops, palmtops, PDAs,
Internet-enabled phone promise anytime
untethered Internet access
two important (but different) challenges
wireless: communication over wireless link
mobility: handling the mobile user who changes point
of attachment to network

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-2

Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction Mobility
6.5 Principles:
Wireless addressing and routing
6.2 Wireless links, to mobile users
characteristics 6.6 Mobile IP
6.3 IEEE 802.11 6.7 Handling mobility in
wireless LANs (wi-fi) cellular networks
6.4 Cellular Internet 6.8 Mobility and higher-
Access layer protocols
architecture
standards (e.g., GSM) 6.9 Summary

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-3

Elements of a wireless network

wireless hosts
laptop, PDA, IP phone
run applications
may be stationary
network (non-mobile) or mobile
infrastructure wireless does not
always mean mobility

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-4

Elements of a wireless network
base station
typically connected to wired
network
relay - responsible for
sending packets between
wired network and wireless
host(s) in its area
network
infrastructure
e.g., cell towers, 802.11
access points

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-5

Elements of a wireless network
wireless link
typically used to connect
mobile(s) to base station
also used as backbone link
multiple access protocol
coordinates link access
network various data rates,
infrastructure
transmission distance

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-6

 Characteristics of selected wireless link
standards

200 802.11n

54 802.11a,g 802.11a,g point-to-point data

Data rate (Mbps)

5-11 802.11b 802.16 (WiMAX)

4 UMTS/WCDMA-HSPDA, CDMA2000-1xEVDO 3G cellular

enhanced
1 802.15

.384 UMTS/WCDMA, CDMA2000 3G

.056 IS-95, CDMA, GSM 2G

Indoor Outdoor Mid-range Long-range

10-30m 50-200m outdoor outdoor
200m 4 Km 5Km 20 Km

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-7

Elements of a wireless network
infrastructure mode
base station connects
mobiles into wired
network
handoff: mobile changes
base station providing
network
connection into wired
infrastructure
network

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-8

Elements of a wireless network
ad hoc mode
no base stations
nodes can only transmit
to other nodes within
link coverage
nodes organize
themselves into a
network: route among
themselves

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-9

Wireless network taxonomy
single hop multiple hops

host connects to host may have to

infrastructure base station (WiFi, relay through several
(e.g., APs) WiMAX, cellular) wireless nodes to
which connects to connect to larger
larger Internet Internet: mesh net

no base station, no
connection to larger
no no base station, no
infrastructure Internet. May have to
connection to larger
relay to reach other
Internet (Bluetooth,
a given wireless node
ad hoc nets)
MANET, VANET

Mobile Adhoc Networks Vehicular Adhoc Networks

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Wireless Communication Systems & Networking

- What complicates wireless networking vs.

wired networking?

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

- 1- Channel characteristics
- for satellite we get extended propagation delays
- high bit error rate BER (higher than optical fiber and
coax.)
- asymmetry in bandwidth and delay
- unidirectional links
- effects of wave propagation, attenuation, etc.

- 2- Mobility: continuous and introduces topology

dynamics
- 3- Power constraints in lots of the wireless
devices

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Wireless Link Characteristics (1)
Differences from wired link .

decreased signal strength: radio signal

attenuates as it propagates through matter
(path loss)
interference from other sources: standardized
wireless network frequencies (e.g., 2.4 GHz)
shared by other devices (e.g., phone); devices
(motors) interfere as well
multipath propagation: radio signal reflects off
objects ground, arriving ad destination at
slightly different times

. make communication across (even a point to point)

wireless link much more difficult
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
Wireless Link Characteristics (2)
10-1

SNR: signal-to-noise ratio 10-2

larger SNR easier to
extract signal from noise (a
10-3

good thing)

BER
10-4
SNR versus BER tradeoffs
10-5
given physical layer:
increase power -> increase 10-6

SNR->decrease BER 10-7

given SNR: choose physical 10 20 30 40
SNR(dB)
layer that meets BER QAM256 (8 Mbps)
requirement, giving highest
thruput QAM16 (4 Mbps)

SNR may change with BPSK (1 Mbps)

mobility: dynamically adapt Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
physical layer (modulation Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
technique, rate)
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
Wireless network characteristics
Multiple wireless senders and receivers create
additional problems (beyond multiple access):

A B C
C

As signal Cs signal
B strength strength
A

space
Hidden terminal problem
Signal attenuation:
B, A hear each other B, A hear each other
B, C hear each other B, C hear each other
A, C can not hear each other interfering
A, C can not hear each other
at B
means A, C unaware of their
interference at B

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction Mobility
6.5 Principles:
Wireless addressing and routing
6.2 Wireless links, to mobile users
characteristics 6.6 Mobile IP
CDMA 6.7 Handling mobility in
6.3 IEEE 802.11 cellular networks
wireless LANs (wi-fi) 6.8 Mobility and higher-
6.4 cellular Internet layer protocols
access
architecture 6.9 Summary
standards (e.g., GSM)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN
802.11b 802.11a
2.4-5 GHz unlicensed spectrum 5-6 GHz range

up to 11 Mbps up to 54 Mbps

direct sequence spread 802.11g

spectrum (DSSS) in physical 2.4-5 GHz range
layer (CDMA: code division up to 54 Mbps
multiple access)
802.11n: multiple antennae
all hosts use same chipping
2.4-5 GHz range
code
up to 200 Mbps

all use CSMA/CA for multiple access

all have base-station and ad-hoc network versions

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

802.11 LAN architecture
wireless host communicates
Internet with base station
base station = access
point (AP)
Basic Service Set (BSS)

hub, switch (aka cell) in infrastructure

or router mode contains:
AP
wireless hosts
access point (AP): base
BSS 1
station
AP
ad hoc mode: hosts only

BSS 2
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
 802.11: Channels, association
802.11b: 2.4GHz-2.485GHz spectrum divided into 11
channels at different frequencies
AP admin chooses frequency for AP
interference possible: channel can be same as that
chosen by neighboring AP!
host: must associate with an AP
scans channels, listening for beacon frames containing
APs name service set ID (SSID) and MAC address
selects AP to associate with
may perform authentication
will typically run DHCP to get IP address in APs subnet

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 802.11: passive/active scanning
BBS 1 BBS 2 BBS 1 BBS 2

AP 1 AP 2 AP 1 1 AP 2
1 1 2 2
2 3
3 4

H1 H1

Passive Scanning: Active Scanning:

(1) beacon frames sent from APs (1) Probe Request frame broadcast
(2) association Request frame sent: from H1
H1 to selected AP (2) Probes response frame sent from
(3) association Response frame sent: APs
selected AP to H1 (3) Association Request frame sent:
H1 to selected AP
(4) Association Response frame
sent: selected AP to H1

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

IEEE 802.11: multiple access
avoid collisions: 2+ nodes transmitting at same time
802.11: CSMA - sense before transmitting
dont collide with ongoing transmission by other node

802.11: no collision detection!

difficult to receive (sense collisions) when transmitting due
to weak received signals (fading)
cant sense all collisions in any case: hidden terminal, fading
goal: avoid collisions: CSMA/C(ollision)A(voidance)

A B C
C
As signal Cs signal
B strength strength
A
space

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA
sender receiver
802.11 sender
1 if sense channel idle for DIFS then DIFS

transmit entire frame (no CD)

2 if sense channel busy then data
start random backoff time
timer counts down while channel idle
SIFS
transmit when timer expires
if no ACK, increase random backoff ACK
interval, repeat 2
802.11 receiver
- if frame received OK Distributed Inter-frame Spacing (DIFS)
Short Inter-frame Spacing (SIFS)
return ACK after SIFS (ACK needed
due to hidden terminal problem)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Hidden Terminal Problem in WLANs

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Avoiding collisions: RTS/CTS
idea: allow sender to reserve channel rather than random
access of data frames: avoid collisions of long data frames
sender first transmits small request-to-send (RTS) packets
to BS using CSMA
RTSs may still collide with each other (but theyre short)
BS broadcasts clear-to-send (CTS) in response to RTS
RTS heard by all nodes
sender transmits data frame
other stations defer transmissions

avoid data frame collisions completely

using small reservation packets!

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS exchange
A B
AP

RTS(A) RTS(B)

reservation collision
RTS(A)

CTS(A) CTS(A)

DATA (A)
defer

time
ACK(A) ACK(A)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Check Animations on-line (applet & ns) 6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
 802.11 frame: addressing

2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4
frame address address address seq address
duration payload CRC
control 1 2 3 control 4

Address 4: used only

in ad hoc mode
Address 1: MAC address
of wireless host or AP Address 3: MAC address
to receive this frame of router interface to
which AP is attached
Address 2: MAC address
of wireless host or AP
transmitting this frame

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

802.11 frame: addressing

Internet
H1 R1 router
AP

R1 MAC addr AP MAC addr

dest. address source address

802.3 frame

AP MAC addr H1 MAC addr R1 MAC addr

address 1 address 2 address 3

802.11 frame

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

802.11 frame: more
frame seq #
duration of reserved
(for reliable ARQ)
transmission time (RTS/CTS)

2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0 - 2312 4
frame address address address seq address
duration payload CRC
control 1 2 3 control 4

2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Protocol To From More Power More
Type Subtype Retry WEP Rsvd
version AP AP frag mgt data

frame type
(RTS, CTS, ACK, data)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

802.11: mobility within same subnet

H1 remains in same IP
router
subnet: IP address
can remain same hub or
switch: which AP is switch

associated with H1? BBS 1

self-learning (Ch. 5):
AP 1
switch will see frame
from H1 and AP 2
remember which
switch port can be H1 BBS 2
used to reach H1

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

802.11: advanced capabilities
Rate Adaptation 10-1

base station, mobile 10-2

10-3
dynamically change

BER
10-4
transmission rate 10-5

(physical layer 10-6

modulation technique) 10-7

10 20 30 40
as mobile moves, SNR SNR(dB)

varies 1. SNR decreases, BER

increase as node moves
QAM256 (8 Mbps) away from base station
QAM16 (4 Mbps)
BPSK (1 Mbps) 2. When BER becomes too
operating point
high, switch to lower
transmission rate but with
Rate adaptation can change rate from lower BER
100Mbps to 1Mbps !!
Does this affect higher protocol layers? 6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
802.11: advanced capabilities
Power Management
node-to-AP: I am going to sleep until next
beacon frame
AP knows not to transmit frames to this
node
node wakes up before next beacon frame
beacon frame: contains list of mobiles with AP-
to-mobile frames waiting to be sent
node will stay awake if AP-to-mobile frames
to be sent; otherwise sleep again until next
beacon frame (typically after 100msec)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

802.15: personal area network
less than 10 m diameter
replacement for cables
(mouse, keyboard, S P

headphones) P radius of
M
ad hoc: no infrastructure coverage

master/slaves: S S P
P
slaves request permission to
send (to master)
master grants requests
M Master device
802.15: evolved from
Slave device
Bluetooth specification S
2.4-2.5 GHz radio band P Parked device (inactive)
up to 721 kbps
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
 802.16: WiMAX
point-to-point
like 802.11 & cellular:
base station model
transmissions to/from
base station by hosts
with omnidirectional
antenna
base station-to-base point-to-multipoint
station backhaul with
point-to-point antenna
unlike 802.11:
range ~ 6 miles (city
rather than coffee
shop)
~14 Mbps
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
802.16: WiMAX: downlink, uplink scheduling
transmission frame
down-link subframe: base station to node
uplink subframe: node to base station

pream.

DL- UL- DL DL DL Initial request

SS #1 SS #2 SS #k
MAP MAP burst 1 burst 2 burst n maint. conn.

downlink subframe uplink subframe

base station tells nodes who will get to receive (DL map)
and who will get to send (UL map), and when

WiMAX standard provide mechanism for

scheduling, but not scheduling algorithm
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction Mobility
6.5 Principles:
Wireless addressing and routing
6.2 Wireless links, to mobile users
characteristics 6.6 Mobile IP
CDMA 6.7 Handling mobility in
6.3 IEEE 802.11 cellular networks
wireless LANs (wi-fi) 6.8 Mobility and higher-
6.4 Cellular Internet layer protocols
Access
architecture 6.9 Summary
standards (e.g., GSM)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Components of cellular network architecture
MSC
connects cells to wide area net
manages call setup (more later!)
handles mobility (more later!)
cell
covers geographical
region
base station (BS) Mobile
analogous to 802.11 AP Switching
Center
mobile users attach Public telephone
to network through BS network, and
air-interface: Internet
physical and link layer Mobile
protocol between Switching
mobile and BS Center

wired network

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Wireless Comm. Systems

- In general a wireless communication network

consists of:
- 1- Users (mobile station)
- 2- Base Station (BS): connects users to MSC
- 3- Mobile Switching Center (MSC):
- connects the base stations with each other, and
to the PSTN (public switched telephone network)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
Cellular Comm./Networking
Terminology
- Hand-off: the process of transferring the
mobile from one base station to another
- Roamer: a mobile operating in a coverage
area other than the one in which it
subscribed (moving to another MSC)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Cellular Telephone Systems
- A cellular system services a large number of
users over extended geographical coverage with
limited frequency spectrum.
- High capacity is attained by limiting the
coverage of the base station to a cell, so that
the same frequency can be re-used in other
cells
- A problem may occur when moving from one cell
to another while keeping the call un-interrupted.
[the hand-off problem]

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
Design concepts: The Cellular
Concept and Frequency Re-use
- The cellular concept was introduced to solve
the problem of frequency limitation (or
spectral congestion) and user capacity
- Replace a single high power base station with
several lower power base stations, each
covering a smaller geographical area, a cell.
- Each of the base stations is allocated a
number of channels (portion of the overall
system channels)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

- Neighboring base stations (would in
general) use different frequency channels
to reduce interference.
- (more later on interference, channel
assignment and frequency planning)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Frequency Re-use
- A cell uses a set of frequencies
- A cluster holds several cells
- Frequency re-use factor: 1/#cells per
cluster

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Cluster
B Cell
G C B
A G C B
F D A G C
E F D A
B E F D
G C B E
A G C
F D A
E F D
E

Cellular frequency re-use concept: cells with the same letter use the same set of frequencies.
A cluster of cells (highlighted in bold) is replicated over the coverage area. The cluster size,
N, is equal to 7. Since each cell contains one-seventh of the overall channels, the cell
frequency re-use factor is 1/7.

This requires channel/frequency planning and allocation!

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
Multiple Access (MA) Techniques
for Wireless Communications
- MA schemes allow multiple mobile users to
share a limited frequency spectrum.
- Main MA schemes: FDMA, TDMA, SSMA
(FHMA, CDMA [DSMA]), SDMA

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

FDMA

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA)
- Assigns individual channels to individual users
on demand
- Only 1 user utilizes the channel at a time. Idle
times are wasted. Capacity is not shared.
- Communication is continuous
- Does not need synchronization
- Costly filters at the base station
- Need guard bands to alleviate interference

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

TDMA

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA)
- In a time slot only 1 user transmits (or
receives)
- Several users share a single frequency channel
- Transmission is non-continuous
- Power consumption is lower than FDMA (e.g.,
the transmitter can be turned off when idle)
- During idle time, a mobile performs MAHO
- Synchronization is needed

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Spread Spectrum Multiple
Access (SSMA)
- Traditional communication techniques
- Strive to conserve bandwidth

- By contrast, Spread spectrum techniques

- use bandwidth several orders of magnitude
larger than the min. required bandwidth !!

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Spread Spectrum Multiple
Access (SSMA)
- Spread spectrum techniques use bandwidth
larger than the min. required bandwidth
- Modulation:
- Uses pseudo-noise (PN) sequence to convert the signal
into wideband
- The PN is random, but can be re-produced by receiver

- Demodulation:
- Correct correlation using a PN re-produces the signal
- Using wrong PN sequence produces noise, hence this
scheme is secure

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

- Spread Spectrum (SS) uses two techniques:
- (1) FHMA: frequency hopped MA
- (1) DSMA: direct sequence MA (also called CDMA:
code division multiple access)
- Frequency Hopped MA (FHMA)
- Frequencies of individual users are varied in a
pseudo-random fashion within the wideband range
- The signal is broken into bursts and each burst is
sent on a different frequency

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

CDMA

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
used in several wireless broadcast channels
(cellular, satellite, etc) standards
unique code assigned to each user; i.e., code set
partitioning
all users share same frequency, but each user has
own chipping sequence (i.e., code) to encode data
encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping
sequence)
decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and
chipping sequence
allows multiple users to coexist and transmit
simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes
are orthogonal)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

- Speading the signal power over a wide spread of the
frequency spectrum reduces fading effects
- only part of the spectrum, hence only part of the signal, is
affected by fading
- No frequency planning required since users use the
same frequency
- Soft hand-off can be provided since all the cells use
the same frequency. MSC monitors signals.
- In soft hand-off the channel (or frequency) remains
the same and the base station changes

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Space Division MA (SDMA)
Controls the radiated energy for each user in
space using spot beam (directional) antennas

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Hybrid Multiple Access
Systems
- Time division frequency hopping (TDFH):
(used in some versions of GSM)
- User can hop to new frequency at the start
of a new TDMA frame
- Hence reducing interference and fading
effects
- User hops over pre-defined frequencies

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

- FDMA/CDMA:
- The available bandwidth is split into
subspectra. In each subspectrum CDMA is
used
- Allows to assign subspectra on-demand

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

FDMA/CDMA

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Cellular networks: the first hop
Techniques for sharing
mobile-to-BS radio
spectrum
combined FDMA/TDMA:
divide spectrum in time slots

frequency channels, divide

each channel into time
slots frequency
bands

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Cellular standards: brief survey
2G systems: voice channels
IS-136 TDMA: combined FDMA/TDMA (north
america)
GSM (global system for mobile communications):
combined FDMA/TDMA
most widely deployed
IS-95 CDMA: code division multiple access

TDMA/FDMA
CDMA-2000
GPRS EDGE UMT Dont drown in a bowl
IS-136 S
GSM IS-95 of alphabet soup: use this
for reference only

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Cellular standards: brief survey
2.5 G systems: voice and data channels
for those who cant wait for 3G service: 2G extensions
general packet radio service (GPRS)
evolved from GSM
data sent on multiple channels (if available)

enhanced data rates for global evolution (EDGE)

also evolved from GSM, using enhanced modulation
data rates up to 384K

CDMA-2000 (phase 1)
data rates up to 144K
evolved from IS-95

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Cellular standards: brief survey
3G systems: voice/data
Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service (UMTS)
data service: High Speed Uplink/Downlink packet
Access (HSDPA/HSUPA): 3 Mbps
CDMA-2000: CDMA in TDMA slots
data service: 1xEvlution Data Optimized (1xEVDO)
up to 14 Mbps

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction Mobility
6.5 Principles:
Wireless addressing and routing
6.2 Wireless links, to mobile users
characteristics 6.6 Mobile IP
CDMA 6.7 Handling mobility in
6.3 IEEE 802.11 cellular networks
wireless LANs (wi-fi) 6.8 Mobility and higher-
6.4 Cellular Internet layer protocols
Access
architecture 6.9 Summary
standards (e.g., GSM)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

What is mobility?
spectrum of mobility, from the network perspective:

no mobility high mobility

mobile wireless user, mobile user, mobile user, passing

using same access connecting/ through multiple
point disconnecting access point while
from network maintaining ongoing
using DHCP. connections (like cell
phone)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Mobility: Vocabulary
home network: permanent home agent: entity that will
home of mobile perform mobility functions on
(e.g., 128.119.40/24)
behalf of mobile, when mobile
is remote

wide area
network
Permanent address:
address in home
network, can always be
used to reach mobile
e.g., 128.119.40.186 correspondent

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobility: more vocabulary
visited network: network
Permanent address: remains in which mobile currently
constant (e.g., 128.119.40.186) resides (e.g., 79.129.13/24)

Care-of-address: address
in visited network.
(e.g., 79,129.13.2)

wide area
network

foreign agent: entity

in visited network
that performs
correspondent: wants mobility functions on
to communicate with behalf of mobile.
mobile
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
How do you contact a mobile friend:

Consider friend frequently changing I wonder where

addresses, how do you find her? Alice moved to?
search all phone
books?
call her parents?
expect her to let you
know where he/she is?

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobility: approaches
Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent
address of mobile-nodes-in-residence via usual
routing table exchange.
routing tables indicate where each mobile located
no changes to end-systems
Let end-systems handle it:
indirect routing: communication from
correspondent to mobile goes through home agent,
then forwarded to remote
direct routing: correspondent gets foreign
address of mobile, sends directly to mobile

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobility: approaches
Let routing handle it: routers advertise permanent
address of mobile-nodes-in-residence
not via usual
scalable
routing table exchange.
to millions of
routing tables indicate where each mobile located
mobiles
no changes to end-systems
let end-systems handle it:
indirect routing: communication from
correspondent to mobile goes through home agent,
then forwarded to remote
direct routing: correspondent gets foreign
address of mobile, sends directly to mobile

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobility: registration
visited network
home network

1
2
wide area
network

mobile contacts
foreign agent contacts home foreign agent on
agent home: this mobile is entering visited
resident in my network network

End result:
Foreign agent knows about mobile
Home agent knows location of mobile
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
Mobility via Indirect Routing
foreign agent
receives packets,
home agent intercepts forwards to mobile
packets, forwards to visited
foreign agent network
home
network
3
wide area
network
2
1
correspondent 4
addresses packets
mobile replies
using home address
directly to
of mobile
correspondent

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Indirect Routing: comments
Mobile uses two addresses:
permanent address: used by correspondent (hence
mobile location is transparent to correspondent)
care-of-address: used by home agent to forward
datagrams to mobile
foreign agent functions may be done by mobile itself
triangle routing: correspondent-home-network-
mobile
inefficient when

correspondent, mobile
are in same network

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Indirect Routing: moving between networks
suppose mobile user moves to another
network
registers with new foreign agent
new foreign agent registers with home agent
home agent update care-of-address for mobile
packets continue to be forwarded to mobile (but
with new care-of-address)
mobility, changing foreign networks
transparent: on going connections can be
maintained!

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobility via Direct Routing
foreign agent
receives packets,
correspondent forwards forwards to mobile
to foreign agent visited
network
home
network 4
wide area
2 network
3
correspondent 1 4
requests, receives
mobile replies
foreign address of
directly to
mobile
correspondent

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobility via Direct Routing: comments
overcome triangle routing problem
non-transparent to correspondent:
correspondent must get care-of-address
from home agent
what if mobile changes visited network?

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Accommodating mobility with direct routing
anchor foreign agent: FA in first visited network
data always routed first to anchor FA
when mobile moves: new FA arranges to have data
forwarded from old FA (chaining)

foreign net visited

at session start
anchor
foreign
wide area agent
2
network
1 4
3
5
new
correspondent foreign
new foreign
agent network
correspondent agent

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Chapter 6 outline
6.1 Introduction Mobility
6.5 Principles:
Wireless addressing and routing
6.2 Wireless links, to mobile users
characteristics 6.6 Mobile IP
CDMA 6.7 Handling mobility in
6.3 IEEE 802.11 cellular networks
wireless LANs (wi-fi) 6.8 Mobility and higher-
6.4 Cellular Internet layer protocols
Access
architecture 6.9 Summary
standards (e.g., GSM)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobile IP
RFC 2002, RFC 3344.
Goals:
Attempts to provide support for host
mobility while maintaining transparency:
the correspondent node need not know the
location of the mobile node
the connection already established should be
maintained during movement even if the mobile
node changes its network point of attachment

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobile IP

has many features weve seen:

home agents, foreign agents, foreign-agent
registration, care-of-addresses, encapsulation
(packet-within-a-packet)
three components to standard:
indirect routing of datagrams
agent discovery
registration with home agent

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobile IP
Each mobile node has a home network,
home address and home agent

Correspondent Node

Home Agent (HA)

Home Network

Mobile Node

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 When mobile node (MN) moves to a foreign network it obtains a
care-of-address (COA) from the foreign agent (FA) that registers
it with the home agent (HA)
COA is used by HA to forward packets destined to MN
Foreign Agent (FA)
Advertisement (FA,COA)
Foreign Network
Solicitation
Correspondent Node
Register Mobile Node
Register (HA)

Home Agent
Home Network

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Mobile IP: registration example
visited network: 79.129.13/24
home agent foreign agent
HA: 128.119.40.7 COA: 79.129.13.2 ICMP agent adv.
Mobile agent
COA: 79.129.13.2 MA: 128.119.40.186
.

registration req.
registration req. COA: 79.129.13.2
COA: 79.129.13.2 HA: 128.119.40.7
HA: 128.119.40.7 MA: 128.119.40.186
MA: 128.119.40.186 Lifetime: 9999
Lifetime: 9999 identification:714
identification: 714 .
encapsulation format
.

registration reply
time HA: 128.119.40.7 registration reply
MA: 128.119.40.186
Lifetime: 4999 HA: 128.119.40.7
Identification: 714 MA: 128.119.40.186
encapsulation format Lifetime: 4999
. Identification: 714
.

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Mobile IP: indirect routing
foreign-agent-to-mobile packet
packet sent by home agent to foreign dest: 128.119.40.186
agent: a packet within a packet

dest: 79.129.13.2 dest: 128.119.40.186

Permanent address:
128.119.40.186

Care-of address:
79.129.13.2
dest: 128.119.40.186
packet sent by
correspondent

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Packets sent by MN go
directly to CN

Correspondent Mobile Node (MN)

Node (CN)

Packets to MN are
picked up by the HA
and tunneled to MN

Home Agent (HA)

Triangle Routing in Mobile-IP

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Triangular routing can be very inefficient, especially when
C << B+A, where A (as shown) is the shortest path from
CN to MN

C
Correspondent Mobile Node (MN)
Node (CN)

A B

Home Agent (HA)

Triangle Routing in Mobile-IP

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Drawbacks of Mobile IP
Other than (the main problem) of triangular
routing
Mobile IP incurs lots of communication with the
home agent with every movement
so, may not be fit for micro mobility [e.g., move
between rooms or buildings within the same
network domain]
handoff delays are significant since
registration/packets need to go through the home
agent first

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Suggested solutions
To avoid triangular routing
use route optimization
use micro-mobility architectures
Cellular IP (CIP)
Hawaii
Multicast-based Mobility (M&M)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 (3) When MN gets packets from CN
it sends a Binding Update to CN with
(4) CN changes the destination its new address
address of the packets to go to
MNs new address
Correspondent Mobile Node (MN)
Node (CN)

(2) Initial packets (1) MN registers with HA as in

to MN are sent basic Mobile IP.
through HA to MN

Home Agent (HA)

Route Optimization (simple illustration)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 With route optimization
Triangular routing is avoided
Still have problems with micro mobility and
smooth hand-off
Need additional mechanisms to deal with these
issues, which makes the protocol complex.

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Micro-Mobility
Hierarchical approach to mobility:
During frequent, intra-domain, movement only
local efficient handoff is performed without
notifying the home agent (HA) or the
correspondent node (CN)
For inter-domain mobility use Mobile IP. Notify
HA or CN only during inter-domain movement

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Distribution tree dynamics while roaming
Domain Root
FA or CN
Wireless link
Mobile Node

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

M&M: Join/Prune dynamics to modify distribution
Domain Root

Wireless link
Mobile Node

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Components of cellular network architecture

recall: correspondent
wired public
telephone
network

MSC MSC

MSC
MSC
MSC

different cellular networks,

operated by different providers

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Handling mobility in cellular networks

home network: network of cellular provider you

subscribe to (e.g., Sprint PCS, Verizon)
home location register (HLR): database in home
network containing permanent cell phone #,
profile information (services, preferences,
billing), information about current location
(could be in another network)
visited network: network in which mobile currently
resides
visitor location register (VLR): database with
entry for each user currently in network
could be home network

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 GSM: indirect routing to mobile
home
HLR
network correspondent
2
home
Mobile
home MSC consults HLR, Switching
gets roaming number of Center
mobile in visited network

1 call routed
to home network
3 Public
VLR switched
Mobile
telephone
Switching
network
Center
4
home MSC sets up 2nd leg of call
to MSC in visited network
mobile
user MSC in visited network completes
visited call through base station to mobile
network

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 GSM: handoff with common MSC

Handoff goal: route call via

new base station (without
interruption)
VLR Mobile reasons for handoff:
Switching stronger signal to/from new
Center
BSS (continuing connectivity,
less battery drain)
old new
routing routing
load balance: free up channel
old BSS in current BSS
new BSS
GSM doesnt mandate why to
perform handoff (policy), only
how (mechanism)
handoff initiated by old BSS

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 GSM: handoff with common MSC
1. old BSS informs MSC of impending
handoff, provides list of 1+ new BSSs
2. MSC sets up path (allocates resources)
to new BSS
VLR Mobile 3. new BSS allocates radio channel for use
Switching by mobile
Center 2
4 4. new BSS signals MSC, old BSS: ready
1
7 5. old BSS tells mobile: perform handoff to
8
3 new BSS
old BSS 5 6
new BSS 6. mobile, new BSS signal to activate new
channel
7. mobile signals via new BSS to MSC:
handoff complete. MSC reroutes call
8 MSC-old-BSS resources released

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

GSM: handoff between MSCs

anchor MSC: first MSC

home network
visited during call
correspondent call remains routed
Home
MSC through anchor MSC
new MSCs add on to end
of MSC chain as mobile
anchor MSC
PSTN
MSC
moves to new MSC
MSC MSC
IS-41 allows optional
path minimization step
to shorten multi-MSC
chain
(a) before handoff

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

GSM: handoff between MSCs

anchor MSC: first MSC

home network
visited during call
correspondent call remains routed
Home
MSC through anchor MSC
new MSCs add on to end
of MSC chain as mobile
anchor MSC
PSTN
MSC
moves to new MSC
MSC MSC
IS-41 allows optional
path minimization step
to shorten multi-MSC
chain
(b) after handoff

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Mobility: GSM versus Mobile IP
GSM element Comment on GSM element Mobile IP element
Home system Network to which mobile users permanent Home
phone number belongs network
Gateway Mobile Home MSC: point of contact to obtain routable Home agent
Switching Center, or address of mobile user. HLR: database in
home MSC. Home home system containing permanent phone
Location Register number, profile information, current location of
(HLR) mobile user, subscription information
Visited System Network other than home system where mobile Visited
user is currently residing network
Visited Mobile Visited MSC: responsible for setting up calls Foreign agent
services Switching to/from mobile nodes in cells associated with
Center. MSC. VLR: temporary database entry in visited
Visitor Location system, containing subscription information for
Record (VLR) each visiting mobile user
Mobile Station Routable address for telephone call segment Care-of-
Roaming Number between home MSC and visited MSC, visible address
(MSRN), or roaming to neither the mobile nor the correspondent.
number

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Wireless, mobility: impact on higher layer protocols

logically, impactshould be minimal

best effort service model remains unchanged
TCP and UDP can (and do) run over wireless, mobile
but performance-wise:
packet loss/delay due to bit-errors (discarded
packets, delays for link-layer retransmissions), and
handoff
TCP interprets loss as congestion, will decrease
congestion window un-necessarily
delay impairments for real-time traffic
limited bandwidth of wireless links

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Chapter 6 Summary
Wireless Mobility
wireless links: principles: addressing,
capacity, distance routing to mobile users
channel impairments home, visited networks
CDMA direct, indirect routing
IEEE 802.11 (wi-fi) care-of-addresses
CSMA/CA reflects case studies
wireless channel mobile IP
characteristics mobility in GSM
cellular access impact on higher-layer
architecture
protocols
standards (e.g., GSM,
CDMA-2000, UMTS)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
used in several wireless broadcast channels
(cellular, satellite, etc) standards
unique code assigned to each user; i.e., code set
partitioning
all users share same frequency, but each user has
own chipping sequence (i.e., code) to encode data
encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping
sequence)
decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and
chipping sequence
allows multiple users to coexist and transmit
simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes
are orthogonal)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 CDMA Encode/Decode
channel output Zi,m
Zi,m= di.cm
data d0 = 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d1 = -1
bits -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
sender
-1 -1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 slot 1 slot 0
code channel channel
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
output output
slot 1 slot 0

M
Di = Zi,m.cm
m=1
M
received 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
d0 = 1
input -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 d1 = -1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 slot 1 slot 0
code channel channel
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1

receiver slot 1 slot 0

output output

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

CDMA: two-sender interference

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum
m(t)
Original signal is
The spreading signal is p(t) [the PN sequence]
The spread spectrum signal is Sss(t)

A single pulse or symbol of the PN waveform is called a chip

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Sss(t) ~ m(t)p(t)cos(2fct+)
B: is the bandwidth of m(t)cos(2fct+)
Wss: is the bandwidth of Sss(t)
Wss >> B

Phase modulation
Sss(t)
Data m(t)
Transmitted Signal
p(t)
PN Code Oscillator
Generator fc

Chip Clock

Block diagram of a DS-SS system with binary phase modulation

Transmitter
6: Wireless and Mobile 6-
 Symbol
(A) Channel (B)
f(B,C)
encoder

(C)
Chip

Symbol duration for m(t): Ts

Chip duration for p(t): Tc

Processing Gain PG=Wss/B=Ts/Tc, a measure of interference rejection capability

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

Bit stream
(A)

Ts
Encoded
stream m(t)
(B)
Tc

Pseudo-noise
sequence p(t)
(C)

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-

 Example:
f(B,C)=BC, where
1 1= 0
10=1
00=0
if we have received f(B,C) and we are able to
re-generate the PN (C), then we can get B.

6: Wireless and Mobile 6-