Exploring the Factor Structure
of Cognitive Language
Learning Strategies
BY: JEANNE FLORES-PURPURA
The past twenty years have witnessed a large body of
second language research targeting language
learning strategies (e.g. Anderson 2003; Chamot et
al. 1999; Cohen 1998, 2002; Ehrman et al. 2003;
Grenfell and Harris 1999;Lan and Oxford 2003;
Macaro 2001; MacIntyre 1994; McDonough 1995,
1999; Nunan 1997; O’Malley et al. 1985; O’Malley
and Chamot 1990; Oxford 1990, 1996; Purdie and
Oliver 1999; Purpura 1999; Wenden 1991;Wenden
and Rubin 1987; Yamamori et al. 2003).
The majority of the work in the learning strategy
literature had more practical goals, namely to
explore ways of empowering language learners to
become more self-directed and effective in their
learning.
Strategy specialists believe that learners with
strategic knowledge of language learning, compared
with those without, become more efficient,
resourceful, and flexible, thus acquiring a language
more easily.
If learners can develop, personalize, and use a
repertoire of learning strategies, they will be able to
achieve language proficiency in a much facilitated
manner
Macaro’s (2001) said that ‘One thing seems to be
increasingly clear and that is that, across learning
contexts, those learners who are pro-active in their
pursuit of language learning appear to learn best.’
Weinstein and Mayer (1986) define strategies as ‘the
behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in
during learning that are intended to influence the
learner’s encoding process’.
Weinstein et al. (2000) have redefined learning
strategies as ‘any thoughts, behaviours, beliefs, or
emotions that facilitate the acquisition
understanding, or later transfer of new knowledge
and skills’.
Language learning strategies are actions taken by
second and foreign language learners to control and
improve their own learning. They are keys to greater
autonomy and more meaningful learning (Oxford,
1990).
These are conscious steps taken by students to
enhance their own learning, more particularly,
specific actions taken by the learner to make
learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self
directed, more effective , and more transferable to
new situations.
* Language learning strategies is defined as the
instruments of tactics that students employ in
performing the learning duties based on such
language skills as speaking, writing, listening and
writing.
Learning Strategies
Direct Strategies
1. Memory
2. Cognitive
3. Compensation
Indirect Strategies
1. Metacognitive
2. Affective
3. Social
Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language
Learning (SILL).
This measures how often students report using certain
learning strategies in general L2 learning situations.
Results are helpful for understanding the general or
typical frequency of strategy use by an individual.
A number of SILL studies have shown that L2 strategy
use is associated with proficiency (Bedell & Oxford,
1996; Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; Green & Oxford, 2003;
ku, 1995; Mullins, 1992), learning style (Ehrman &
Oxford, 1990; Oxford & Cohen, 2004; Rossi-Le,
1995), gender (Ehrman & Oxford, 1989; Green &
Oxford, 1995; Gu, 2002; Oxford and Nyikos, 1989),
motivation (Oxford & Nyikos, 1989)
Cognitive strategies involve identifying, retaining,
storing and retrieving words, phrases and other
elements of the second language.
Theoretical Framework:
Oxford’s (1990) Strategy Inventory for Language
Learning (SILL) version 7.0
• Researcher modified SILL
• 80 item cognitive language learning strategies
• Four factors: practicing; receiving and sending
messages; analyzing and reasoning; creating
structure for input and output
Cognitive Language Strategies
A. Practicing
1. repeating
2. formally practicing with sounds and writing
systems
3.recognizing and using formulas and patterns
4. recombining
5. practicing naturally
B. Receiving and Sending Messages
1. getting the idea quickly
2. using resources for receiving and sending
messages
C. Analyzing and Reasoning
1. reasoning deductively
2. analyzing expressions
3. analyzing contrastively (across languages)
4. translating
5. transferring
D. Creating Structure for Input and Output
1. taking notes
2. summarizing
3. highlighting
Methodology
• 80 item test
• questionnaire was evaluated by an expert
• Researcher administered the test
• Likert- scale
• Items were randomly arranged
• (see questionnaire)
Principal Component Analysis
The PCA procedure extracted 20 factors with
eigenvalues greater than 1. But using scree test to
assess the number of acceptable factors, only four
factors were analyzed. There were no items with high
factor loadings starting at the 15th to the 20th factor
Plot of Eigenvalues
P lo t o f E ig e n v a lu e s
20
18
16
14
12
10
Value
0
N u m b e r o f E ig e n v a lu e s
The factor loadings were rotated using the varimax
and items with loadings of .40 and above were
included in the final form of the test.
Reliability results
Number of items in scale: 80
Number of items with zero variance: 0
Number of valid cases: 100
Number of cases with missing data: 0
Missing data were deleted: casewise
SUMMARY STATISTICS FOR SCALE
Mean: 258.28000000 Sum: 25828.000000
Standard Deviation: 38.814003513 Variance: 1506.5268687
Skewness: -.109279615 Kurtosis: .456083612
Minimum: 142.00000000 Maximum: 372.00000000
Cronbach's alpha: .945660555
These new four factors were categorized as taking note
of language structure to practice skills,
summarizing skills and applying it to situations,
and using references to improve proficiency.
A. Taking note of language structure to practice skills
I record and listen to my own voice as I speak in
English.
I recognize and practice English expressions (such as
greetings, idiomatic expressions).
I consult the English dictionary if I meet unfamiliar
words in English.
I consult the thesaurus, or reference materials if I meet
unfamiliar words in English.
I develop my own understanding of how the English
language works, even if sometimes I have to revise
my understanding based on new information.
B. summarizing skills and applying it to situations
20. I make summaries in English.
22. I use the English language when talking with my friends, peers,
acquaintances and family members.
24. I write in English all the time.
32. I translate words in English to my own language to understand it
better.
33. In understanding some difficult English words, I try to find their
similarity to my own language.
36. I break down difficult phrases into its component parts to help me
understand unfamiliar phrases in the English language.
49. If I am not familiar with the word I am about to use in my
sentence, I use the dictionary to be certain that I am using it
correctly.
50. To limit redundancy in the use of words in my paragraph, I use the
thesaurus.
C. Using references to improve proficiency
I look for similarities between the English language
and my own.
I look for contrasts between the English language and
my own.
When I hear an unfamiliar word in a movie, I check
the dictionary to get its meaning.
