Introduction to
Statistics and Data
Presentation
Statistics
Science of handling data
Art of handling data
Body of methodology for the
collection, presentation, analysis and
interpretation of quantitative data.
Uses of Statistics
Education Sociology
Government Sports
Business Banks
Psychology Others
Economics
Medicine
Types of Statistics
1. Descriptive Statistics
2. Inferential Statistics
Levels of Measurement
1. Nominal Level – consist of names, labels, or
categories only.
2. Ordinal Level – data maybe arranged in some order,
but differences between data values either cannot
be determined or are meaningless.
3. Interval Level – same with ordinal level, with an
additional property that we can determine
meaningful amounts of differences between data.
4. Ratio Level – interval level modified to include the
inherent zero starting point.
Preliminary Steps in Statistical Study
A. Define the problem.
B. Determine the population/subject of the
study.
C. Device the set of questions.
D. Determine the sampling design.
E. Prepare manual of instruction.
F. Organize and train personnel.
Guidelines in the selection of a
Research Problem or Topic
1. The research problem must be chosen by the researcher himself.
2. The problem must be within the interest of the researcher.
3. The problem must be within the specialization of the researcher.
4. The research problem must be within the competence of the researcher.
5. The researcher must have the ability and capacity to finance the research
problem.
6. The research problem must be manageable.
7. The research problem must be completed within the period set by the
researcher.
Guidelines in the selection of a
Research Problem or Topic
8. The research problem must be significant, important and relevant to the
present time as well as to the future.
9. The results of the study must be practical and implementable.
10. The study must contribute to the human knowledge. The facts and
knowledge must be a product of research.
Different Types of Questions
1. Two way questions
2. Multiple Choice
3. Free Answer
Forms of Questions
1. Structured Question
2. Unstructured or Open-ended
Questions
Characteristics of Good Questionnaire
1. Questions must be brief, clear and simple.
2. Avoid leading questions.
3. An objective type of question is preferred over a subjective type.
4. Allowance should be made for approximate answers.
5. Questions should be asked in correct sequence to allow a logical
flow of thought.
6. Confidential questions should be avoided or should be carefully
worded.
7. Limit questions to essential information.
8. Make sure that questions are understood.
9. State all questions positively or affirmatively.
Sampling Design
Problem:
A researcher wants to make use of a
student population of 3,000 for his study in
the mathematical achievement test. If he
allows a 5% margin of error, how many
students must he take for his sample?
Main Steps in Statistical Study
1. Collection of data.
2. Presentation of data.
3. Analysis of data.
4. Interpretation of data.
Collection of Data
Methods in the Collection of Data
1. Direct or Interview Method
2. Indirect or Questionnaire Method
3. Registration Method
Sampling Techniques
1. Probability Sampling
2. Non – Probability Sampling
Types of Probability Sampling
1. Pure Random Sampling/Unrestricted
Random Sampling
2. Systematics Sampling/Restricted
Random Sampling
3. Stratified Random Sampling
4. Cluster Sampling/Area Sampling
Types of Non - Probability Sampling
1. Accidental Sampling
2. Quota Sampling
3. Convenience Sampling
4. Purposive Sampling
Advantages of Sampling
1. More economical
2. Accomplished Faster
3. Wider Scope
4. More accurate
5. Sampling makes possible the study of a
large, heterogeneous population
Types of Data
1. Discrete Data
2. Continuous Data
Presentation of Data
1. TextualPresentation
2. Tabular Presentation
3. Graphical Presentation
Textual Presentation
data refers to data presented in written, paragraph form.
Tabular Presentation
Tabular Presentation
Tabular Presentation
Graphical Presentation
Advantages
1. Attracts attention more effectively.
2. Use of colors and pictorial diagrams makes a list figures in business
reports more meaningful
3. Gives comprehensive view of quantitative data.
4. Graphs enable the top management to grasp the essential facts
quickly without much trouble.
5. Their general usefulness lies in the simplicity they add to the
presentation of numerical data.
Graphical Presentation
Disadvantages
1. Graphs do not show as much information at a time as do tables
2. Graphs do not show data as accurately as the tables do.
3. Charts require more skill and time and cost to prepare than
tables
4. Graphs can not be quoted in the same way as tabulated data.
5. Graphs can be made only after the data had been tabulated.
Types of Graphs
Bar Graphs
presents data in terms of
frequencies per category.
You will construct a bar
graph when you are using
nominal (or qualitative)
categories that cannot be
numerically ordered from
lowest to highest.
Types of Graphs
Histograms represents quantitative data in terms of frequencies.
Types of Graphs
Pie Charts
depicts the percentage
represented by each
alternative as a slice of a
circular pie; the larger the
slice, the greater the
percentage.
Types of Graphs
Frequency
Polygons
like the histogram, displays
the frequency of each
number or score. The only
differences between these
two graphs are the use of
bars in the histogram and
the use of connected dots
in the frequency polygon.
• Line Graph – in line graphs, there
Types of Graphs are two axes or dimensions that
must be discussed.
• The vertical (Y axis) is known as
the ordinate; the horizontal (X
Line Graph axis) is known as the abscissa.
• One of your variables is plotted
on the ordinate and the other is
plotted on the abscissa.
• A good guideline is to plot the
variable that has the greatest
number of levels on the abscissa,
and thus reducing the number of
lines that will appear on your
graph.
Types of Graphs
Bubble graphs
Infographics
Infographics
Infographics
