CONTROLLER

1
 On-Off Controllers

• Simple
• Cheap
Chapter 8

• Used In residential heating and domestic refrigerators

• Limited use in process control due to continuous
cycling of controlled variable  excessive wear
on control valve.

2
 On-Off Controllers (continued)
Synonyms:
“two-position” or “bang-bang” controllers.
Chapter 8

Controller output has two possible values.

3
 Practical case (dead band)
Chapter 8

4
 Feedback Controllers
Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 Schematic diagram for a stirred-tank blending

system. 5
6
7
PID CONTROLLER

8
 PID Control Algorithm

 1
t
de(t ) 
c(t )  c0  K c e(t )   e(t )dt   D 
 I 0 dt 
where e(t )  ysp  ys (t )
 Definition of Terms
• e(t)- the error from setpoint [e(t)=ysp-ys].
• Kc- the controller gain is a tuning parameter and
largely determines the controller aggressiveness.
• I- the reset time is a tuning parameter and
determines the amount of integral action.
• D- the derivative time is a tuning parameter and
determines the amount of derivative action.
 Transfer Function for a PID
Controller

C ( s)  1 
Gc ( s )   K c 1    D s
E ( s)  Is 
12
 Basic Control Modes
Next we consider the three basic control modes starting with the
simplest mode, proportional control.

Proportional Control
Chapter 8

In feedback control, the objective is to reduce the error signal to

zero where
e  t   ysp  t   ym  t  (8-1)
and
e t   error signal
ysp  t   set point
ym  t   measured value of the controlled variable
(or equivalent signal from the sensor/transmitter)

13
 Although Eq. 8-1 indicates that the set point can be time-varying,
in many process control problems it is kept constant for long
periods of time.
For proportional control, the controller output is proportional to
the error signal,
Chapter 8

p  t   p  Kce  t  (8-2)

where:

p  t   controller output
p  bias (steady-state) value
K c  controller gain (usually dimensionless)

14
 The key concepts behind proportional control are the following:

1. The controller gain can be adjusted to make the controller

output changes as sensitive as desired to deviations between
set point and controlled variable;
2. the sign of Kc can be chosed to make the controller output
Chapter 8

increase (or decrease) as the error signal increases.

For proportional controllers, bias p can be adjusted, a procedure

referred to as manual reset.
Some controllers have a proportional band setting instead of a
controller gain. The proportional band PB (in %) is defined as

100%
PB  (8-3)
Kc

15
 In order to derive the transfer function for an ideal proportional
controller (without saturation limits), define a deviation variable
p  t  as
p  t   p  t   p (8-4)

Then Eq. 8-2 can be written as

p  t   K c e  t 
Chapter 8

(8-5)

The transfer function for proportional-only control:

P  s 
 Kc (8-6)
E  s

An inherent disadvantage of proportional-only control is that a

steady-state error occurs after a set-point change or a sustained
disturbance.

16
Offset Resulting from P-only
Control

Setpoint Offset
1.0
3

1
0
Time
 Integral Control
For integral control action, the controller output depends on the
integral of the error signal over time,
1 t
p t  p  0 e  t * dt * (8-7)
τI
Chapter 8

where τ I , an adjustable parameter referred to as the integral time

or reset time, has units of time.

Integral control action is widely used because it provides an

important practical advantage, the elimination of offset.
Consequently, integral control action is normally used in
conjunction with proportional control as the proportional-integral
(PI) controller:
 1 t 
p  t   p  Kc  e  t   0 e  t * dt *  (8-8)
 τI
18
 The corresponding transfer function for the PI controller in
Eq. 8-8 is given by

P  s   1   τI s 1 
 Kc 1    Kc   (8-9)
E  s  τ s
I  τ
 I  s
Chapter 8

Some commercial controllers are calibrated in terms of 1/ τ I

(repeats per minute) rather than τ I (minutes, or minutes per
repeat).

Reset Windup

• An inherent disadvantage of integral control action is a

phenomenon known as reset windup or integral windup.
• Recall that the integral mode causes the controller output to
change as long as e(t*) ≠ 0 in Eq. 8-8.
19
 • When a sustained error occurs, the integral term becomes
quite large and the controller output eventually saturates.
• Further buildup of the integral term while the controller is
saturated is referred to as reset windup or integral windup.
Chapter 8

ysp

ys

cprop

Time

20
 Effect of Variations in Kc

Time Time Time

Effect of Variations in tI

Time Time Time

Derivative Control

The function of derivative control action is to anticipate the

future behavior of the error signal by considering its rate of
change.

• The anticipatory strategy used by the experienced operator can

be incorporated in automatic controllers by making the
controller output proportional to the rate of change of the error
signal or the controlled variable.

22
 • Thus, for ideal derivative action,

de  t 
p  t   p  τD (8-10)
dt
where τ D , the derivative time, has units of time.
For example, an ideal PD controller has the transfer function:
Chapter 8

P  s 
 Kc  1  τ D s  (8-11)
E  s

• By providing anticipatory control action, the derivative mode

tends to stabilize the controlled process.
• Unfortunately, the ideal proportional-derivative control
algorithm in Eq. 8-10 is physically unrealizable because it
cannot be implemented exactly.
23
24
 Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control
Now we consider the combination of the proportional, integral,
and derivative control modes as a PID controller.
• Many variations of PID control are used in practice.
• Next, we consider the three most common forms.
Chapter 8

Parallel Form of PID Control

The parallel form of the PID control algorithm (without a
derivative filter) is given by

 1 t de  t  
p  t   p  Kc e  t   0 e  t * dt *  τ D dt  (8-13)
 τI

25
 The corresponding transfer function is:

P  s   1 
 K c 1   τD s (8-14)
E  s  τI s 

Series Form of PID Control

Chapter 8

Historically, it was convenient to construct early analog

controllers (both electronic and pneumatic) so that a PI element
and a PD element operated in series.
Commercial versions of the series-form controller have a
derivative filter that is applied to either the derivative term, as in
Eq. 8-12, or to the PD term, as in Eq. 8-15:

P  s   τ I s  1  τ D s  1 
 Kc    (8-15)
E  s τ
 I  Ds ατ s  1 
26
 Expanded Form of PID Control
In addition to the well-known series and parallel forms, the
expanded form of PID control in Eq. 8-16 is sometimes used:
t de  t 
p  t   p  K c e  t   K I  e  t * dt *  K D (8-16)
0 dt
Chapter 8

PI

PID

Time
27
 Controller Comparison

P - Simplest controller to tune (Kc).

- Offset with sustained disturbance or setpoint
Chapter 8

change.
PI - More complicated to tune (Kc, I) .
- Better performance than P
- No offset
- Most popular FB controller
PID - Most complicated to tune (Kc, I, D) .
- Better performance than PI
- No offset
- Derivative action may be affected by noise

28
 Typical Response of Feedback Control Systems
Consider response of a controlled system after a
sustained disturbance occurs (e.g., step change in
the disturbance variable)
Chapter 8

Figure 8.12. Typical process responses with feedback control.

29
 Figure 8.13.
Proportional control:
effect of controller
gain.
Chapter 8

Figure 8.15. PID

control: effect of
derivative time.

30
Chapter 8

Figure 8.14. PI control: (a) effect of reset time (b) effect of

controller gain.

31
 Controller Tuning: A Motivational Example

Fig. 12.1. Unit-step disturbance responses for the candidate controllers

(FOPTD Model: K = 1,θ  4, τ  20).
32