UNIT 1

Generalized Measurement
System
Syllabus

Introduction to measurement and measuring

instruments, Generalized measuring system
and functional elements, units of
measurement, static and dynamic
performance characteristics of measurement
devices, calibration, concept of error, sources
of error, statistical analysis of errors sensors
and Transducers – Types of sensors, type of
transducers and their characteristics.
Introduction
 What is measurement?
In order to compare or determine the value of a physical
variables, some kind of measurement is to be carried out.
Measurement of a quantity is the act or the result of a
quantitative comparison between a predefined standard and
a unknown magnitude

Process of comparison
Measurand Result
(measurement)
(quantity to be measured)

Standard
(Known quantity)
Introduction

 Measurement is defined as the process of numerical evaluation of a

dimension or the process of comparison with standard measuring
instruments.
 The elements of measuring system include the instrumentation,
calibration standards, environmental influence, human operator
limitations and features of the work-piece.
 The basic aim of measurement in industries, is to check whether a
component has been manufactured to the requirement of a
specification or not.
 The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result
of comparison between the quantity and a predefined standard.
Methods of Measurement
 The methods of measurement may be broadly
classified into two categories:
1. Direct methods
2. Indirect methods
Classification
Primary Measurement
Secondary Measurements
Tertiary Measurements

Direct measurement Indirect measurement

Primary Measurement Secondary Measurements

Tertiary Measurements
Explaination
1 Primary Measurements
In primary measurement the sought value of a physical parameter is determined by
comparing it directly with "reference standards". There is no conversion of
measured in terms of length for example one may take the following-
 Measurement of time by counting the number of strokes of a clock.
 Matching of two lengths when determining the length of an object with a ruler.
 Matching of two colors when judging the temperature of red hot steel.
2 Secondary Measurements
The indirect measurements involving 'one translation' are called secondary
measurements. e.g.
 The pressure measurement by manometers.
 The temperature measurement by mercury-in-glass thermometers.
 The conversion of pressure in to displacement by means of bellows.
3 Tertiary Measurements
The indirect measurements involving 'two conversions' are called tertiary
measurements.
 Examples: Measurement of static pressure by a bourden tube pressure gauge.
Errors
 Errors in Measurements:
It is never possible to measure the true value of a
dimension there is a always some error.
The error in measurement is the difference
between the measured value and the true value of
the measured dimension.

Error in measurement = Measured value - True value

 Absolute Error:
True absolute error: It is the algebraic difference
between the result of measurement and the
conventional true value of the quantity measured.

Apparent absolute error: If the series of

measurement are made then the algebraic
difference between one of the results of
measurement and the arithmetical mean is known
as apparent absolute error.
 Systematic Error: These error include calibration errors,
error due to variation in the atmospheric condition
Variation in contact pressure etc. If properly analyzed,
these errors can be determined and reduced or even
eliminated hence also called controllable errors.

 Random Error: These errors are caused due to variation

in position of setting standard and work-piece errors. Due
to displacement of level joints of instruments, due to
backlash and friction, these error are induced.
 Alignment Error (Cosine Error)- This error is based
on Abbes principle of alignment which states that
the line of measurement of the measuring
component should coincide with the measuring
scale or axis of the measuring instrument.
L = actual size of job
l= measured size of job
e = error induced due to non-alignment

 The equation of error consist of cosine function, hence error is

called cosine error
 Parallax Error (Reading Error): The position of the observer
at the time of taking a reading (on scale) can create errors in
measurement.
 The observer should take readings by viewing eye position
exactly perpendicular to the scale.
 Contact Error- the contact of jaws with work piece plays an
important role while measure in laboratory or work shops.
The following example shows the contact error. If the jaws of
the instrument are placed as shown in Figure the error 'e' is
developed, which is because of poor contact only.
Instrumental Error- Any measuring device has an
inherent error associated with it, as and when the
instrument is operated inherent errors
propagates, the same can be termed as
Instrumental error. So the errors caused in
measuring instruments because of the inherent
errors that the instruments or structure carries
with itself for example- in mechanical structure
such as friction in bearings of various moving
components
Performance Characteristics

Performance characteristics can be considered as

the characteristics that shows the performance of
an instrument.
It helps and allows users to select the most suitable
instrument for specific measuring jobs.

There are two basic characteristic categories given

below
1.Static
2.Dynamic
 Static Characteristics-The characteristics
involved in the measurement of quantities
that are either constant or slowly varying
with time to define a set of criteria that gives
meaningful description is called as static
characteristics.
Static characteristic

1 Precision -Precision is the measure of stability or

repeatability of measurement i.e. successive reading
does not differ
If the instrument is not precise it will give different
results for the same dimension when measure again
and again
2 Accuracy -In measurement accuracy can be defined
as the closeness to true, expected or desired value.
The difference between the true value and the
measured value is known as error of measurement.
 Distinction between Precision and
Accuracy
 Several measurements are made on
a component by different types of
instruments (A, B and C respectively)
and the results are plotted.
 In any set of measurements, the
individual measurements are
scattered about the mean
 The difference between the mean of
set of readings on the same quality
characteristic and the true value is
called as error.
 Less the error more accurate is the
instrument.
 Accuracy Vs Precision
S. no. Accuracy Precision
1. It is closeness with the true value of It is a measure of the reproducibility of
quantity being measured. the measurement.

2. The accuracy of measurement means The term precise means clearly or

conformity to truth. sharply defined.

3. Accuracy can be improved. Precision cannot be improved.

4. Accuracy depends upon simple Precision depends upon many factors
techniques of analysis. and requires many sophisticated
techniques of analysis.

5. Accuracy is necessary but not sufficient Precision is necessary but not sufficient
condition for precision. condition for accuracy.
Static characteristic

Sensitivity-Sensitivity of an instrument is defined as

the ratio of the output signal (magnitude of response)
to the input signal (quantity being measured).
 Sensitivity refers to the ability of measuring device to
detect small differences in quantity being measured
 This is the relationship between changes in the output
reading for a given change of the input.
 This relationship may be linear or non-linear.
 Sensitivity is often known as scale factor
Static characteristic

Calibration-The calibration of any measuring instrument is

necessary to measure the quantity in terms of standard
unit.
 Calibration is a pre-measurement process, generally
carried out by manufacturers.
 It is carried out by making adjustments such that the read
out device produces zero output for zero measured input.
 Similarly, it should display an output equivalent to the
known measured input near the full scale input value.
 The accuracy of the instrument depends upon the
calibration.
 Constant use of instruments affects their accuracy.
Static characteristic

 Reproducibility-Reproducibility is the
consistency of pattern of variation in
measurement i.e. closeness of the conformity
between the result of measurement of the
same quantity
Static characteristic
 Linearity-Linearity of instruments can be defined as condition
when incremental changes in the input and output are
constant over the specified range. It can also be described as a
measure of maximum deviation of a calibration point from a
best fit line. It is the ability to reproduce the input
characteristics symmetrically and this can be expressed by the
straight line equation.
 
Static characteristic
 Drift -Drift is defined as the slow but sure change or float in
calibration curve over a period of time. It is also defined as the
variation of output for a given input caused due to change in the
sensitivity of the instrument to certain interfering inputs like
temperature changes, component instability etc. Generally it is
undesirable quality in industrial instruments as it is rarely apparent
& cannot be easily compensated for. It is basically of two types.
 Zero Drift – in zero drift, calibration curve has same slope but it
starts from non zero value i.e. the zero point is shifted and
sensitivity is constant.
 Sensitivity Drift – In sensitivity drift calibration curve starts from
zero value but proceed in different direction due to change in
sensitivity of the system.
Static characteristic
Dynamic Characteristics

 When an instrument are required to measure

an input which is varying with time , the
dynamic characters / transient behavior of
instrument becomes more important.
Dynamic Characteristics

 Speed of response-It is the quickness and

speed to which an instrument responses to
situational changes in input quantity.

 Measuring Lag-Measuring lag just opposite

to the speed of response as it is the delay by
which an instrument response to changes in
input quantity
Dynamic Characteristics

 Dead Zone-Dead zone can be defined as the

largest change (range) of input quantity for
which there is no output of instrument i.e.
instrument does not respond. It can be
caused due to friction.

Range of dead Zone

Dynamic Characteristics

 Dead Time -Dead time is defined as the time

required for an instrument to starts
responding to a change in the measured
quantity.
 It represent the time before the instrument
begins to respond after the measured
quantity has been altered.
 One can say that it is the time to overcome
the dead zone state.
Dynamic Characteristics

 Overshoot- because of mass and inertia, a

moving part i.e. the moving part does not
come to rest immediately come to rest in the
final deflected position.
overshoot

Final steady position

Classification of Measuring
Instruments:
 Measuring instruments can be classified as:
1. Mechanical instruments
2. Electrical instruments
3. Electronic instruments
Mechanical instruments
 The first instrument used by mankind was mechanical in
nature. These instruments are very reliable for static and
stable conditions, but they are unable to respond rapidly
to measurements of dynamic and transient conditions.
 This is due to the fact that these instruments have moving
parts that are rigid, heavy and bulky and consequently
have a large mass.
 Mass presents inertia problems and hence these
instruments can not faithfully follow the rapid changes.
Another disadvantage of mechanical instruments is that
most of them are a potential source of noise and cause
noise pollution.
Electrical instruments
 Electrical methods are more rapid than the
mechanical methods. But electrical system normally
depends upon a mechanical meter movement as
indicating device. Therefore these instruments have
limited time response.
Electronic instruments :

 It may be stated that in general electronic

instruments have,
1. A higher sensitivity.
2. A faster response.
3. A greater flexibility.
4. Lower weight
5. Less power consumption
6. A higher degree of reliability
Classification of Transducer :

 The transducer can be classified as follows :

1. Primary and secondary
2. Active and passive
3. Analog and digital
4. Transducer and inverse transducer
Primary and secondary transducers :

 Whenever parameter is to be measured,

there may be requirement of two-stage
transducer. First stage is primary transducer
and second stage is called a secondary
transducer.
 Active and passive transducer :

S.no. Active transducer Passive transducer

1. Active transducers are those which Passive transducers derive the
do not require an auxiliary power power required for transduction
source to produce their output. from an auxiliary power supply.
2. They are also known as self They are also known as externally
generating type. powered transducer.
3. The energy required for production They also derive part of the power
of output signal is obtained from the required for conversion from the
physical quantity. physical quantity under
measurement.
4. As these are active, the size is more Auxiliary power supply has to be
compact. considered for size.
5. Signal conversion is more easier. Signal conversion may be
complicated.
Analog and digital transducers :

 Analog transducers :
These transducers convert the input quantity into, an
analog output, which is a continuous function of time.
Thus, a strain gauge, an LVDT, a thermocouple or
thermistor may be called as “Analog Transducers” as they
give an output which is a continuous function of time.
 Digital transducers :
These transducers convert the input quantity into an
electrical output, which is in the form of pulses
Transducer and inverse
transducer :

A transducer can be broadly defined as a device, which converts

a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity.
 Inverse transducer :

An inverse transducer is defined as a device, which converts an

electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.
Types of Sensors :

 Potentiometric Sensors (displacement, motion

measurement)
 Capacitance sensors (Temperature measurement)
 Eddy-current sensors (Motion measurement)
 Piezoelectric sensors (Pressure, force measurement)
 Proximity sensors (Displacement measurement)
 Fiber optics sensors (Temperature measurement)
Potentiometers :
 A potentiometer, informally, a pot, is a three-terminal resistor
with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable voltage divider. If
only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a
variable resistor or rheostat.
 A linear taper potentiometer has a resistive element of constant
cross-section, resulting in a device where the resistance between
the contact (wiper) and one end terminal is proportional to the
distance between them. Linear describes the electrical
characteristic of the device, not the geometry of the resistive
element. Linear taper potentiometers are used when an
approximately proportional relation is desired between shaft
rotation (or slider position) and the division ratio of the
potentiometer; for example, controls used for adjusting the
centering of (an analog) cathode-ray oscilloscope.
Differential Transformers :
 Differential transformers, based on a variable-inductance
principle, are also used to measure displacement. The most
popular variable-inductance sensor for linear-displacement
measurements is the linear variable differential transformer
(LVDT).
Capacitance Sensors :
 Capacitive displacement sensors “are non-contact
devices capable of high-resolution measurement of the
position and/or change of position of any conductive
target”. They are also able to measure the thickness or
density of non-conductive materials. Capacitive
displacement sensors are used in a wide variety of
applications including semiconductor processing,
assembly of precision equipment such as disk drives,
precision thickness measurements, machine tool
metrology and assembly line testing.
the Capacitance can be expressed by the equation:
Eddy-Current Sensors :

 An eddy-current sensor measures distance

between the sensor head and an electrically
conducting surface. sensor operation is based
on eddy currents that are induced at the
conducting surface as magnetic flux lines
from the sensor intersect with the surface of
the conducting material.
Piezoelectric Sensors :

 A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the

piezoelectric effect to measure pressure, acceleration,
strain or force by converting them to an electrical
charge.
 Piezoelectricity is the charge that accumulates in
certain solid materials (notably crystals, certain
ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA
and various proteins) in response to applied
mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means
electricity resulting from pressure
proximity sensor
 A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the
presence of nearby objects without any physical contact.
 A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field
or a beam of electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for
instance), and looks for changes in the field or return
signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the
proximity sensor's target. Different proximity sensor
targets demand different sensors. For example, a
capacitive or photoelectric sensor might be suitable for a
plastic target; an inductive proximity sensor always
requires a metal target.
Fiber Optic Sensors :
 A fiber optic sensor is a sensor that uses optical fiber either as the
sensing element ("intrinsic sensors"), or as a means of relaying
signals from a remote sensor to the electronics that process the
signals ("extrinsic sensors"). Fibers have many uses in remote
sensing.
 Distributed temperature sensing systems (DTS) are
optoelectronic devices which measure temperatures by means of
optical fibres functioning as linear sensors. Temperatures are
recorded along the optical sensor cable, thus not at points, but as
a continuous profile. A high accuracy of temperature
determination is achieved over great distances. Typically the DTS
systems can locate the temperature to a spatial resolution of 1 m
with accuracy to within ±1°C at a resolution of 0.01°C.