Lecture 6: Operators and Quantum

Mechanics

The material in this lecture covers the following in Atkins.

11.5 The informtion of a wavefunction
(c) Operators

Lecture on-line

Operators in quantum mechanics (PDF)

Operators in quantum mechanics (HTML)
Operators in Quantum mechanics (PowerPoint)
Handout (PDF)
Assigned Questions
Tutorials on-line
Reminder of the postulates of quantum mechanics
The postulates of quantum mechanics (This is the writeup for Dry-lab-II)(
This lecture has covered postulate 3)
Basic concepts of importance for the understanding of the postulates
Observables are Operators - Postulates of Quantum Mechanics
Expectation Values - More Postulates
Forming Operators
Hermitian Operators
Dirac Notation
Use of Matricies
Basic math background
Differential Equations
Operator Algebra
Eigenvalue Equations
Extensive account of Operators
Historic development of quantum mechanics from classical mechanics
The Development of Classical Mechanics
Experimental Background for Quantum mecahnics
Early Development of Quantum mechanics
Audio-visuals on-line
Early Development of Quantum mechanics
Audio-visuals on-line
Postulates of Quantum mechanics (PDF) (simplified version from Wilson)
Postulates of Quantum mechanics (HTML) (simplified version from Wilson)
Postulates of Quantum mechanics (PowerPoint ****)
(simplified version from Wilson)

Slides from the text book (From the CD included in Atkins ,**)
 Operators and Quantum Mechanics
Re view
We now have
(Ia) A Quantum mechanical system is specified
by the statefunction (x)

(Ib) The state function (x) contains all

information about the system we can know

(Ic) A system described by the

state function H(x) = E(x)
has exactly the energy E
Operators and Quantum Mechanics
We have seen that a ' free' particle moving Re view
in one dimension in a constant (zero) potential
has the Hamiltonian
2 2
X Hˆ    
O
 2m x 2
The Schrodinger equation is
2 2
   (x)
 2
 E(x)
2m x
with the general solution :
ikx ikx
 (x)  Aexp  Bexp
2k 2
and energies E =
 2m
Operators and Quantum Mechanics
Good question
How does the state function (x, t) give us
information about an observable other than
the energy such as the position or the momentum ?

Any observable ' ' can be expressed in classical physics

in terms of x, y, z and p x ,p y ,p z .

Examples :
 = x, px , v x , p2
x , T, V(x), E
Operators and Quantum Mechanics Re view
We can construct the corresponding operator
from the substitution:
Classical Mechanics Quantum Mechanics
 
x px xˆ   x ; pˆ x  
i x
 
y py yˆ   y ; pˆ y  
i y

z pz zˆ   z ; pˆ z  
 i z

ˆ  d  d  d
as (x,y, z, , , )
 i dx i dy i dz
Such as :
ˆ xˆ , pˆ x , vˆx , pˆ 2
= ˆ ˆ
x , T, V(x), E
Operators and Quantum Mechanics
Im por tan t news
For an observable  with the corresponding
ˆ we have the eigenvalue equation :
operator 
 n  n n
(IIIa). The meassurement of the quantity represented by 
has as the o n l y outcome one of the values

n n = 1, 2, 3 ....
(IIIb). If the system is in a state described by n
a meassurement of  will result in the
value n
Quantum mechanical principle.. Operators
ˆ
For any such operator  Im por tan t news

we can solve the eigenvalue problem

ˆ   
 n n n

We obtain eigenfunctions and eigenvalues

The only possible values that can arise from measurements

of the physical observable  are the eigenvalues n

Postulate 3
Operators and Quantum Mechanics
Im por tan t news
The x - component ' px ' of the linear momentum
 
 
 

p
  p x e x  p y e y  pz e z

Is represented by the operator pˆ x   

 i  x
With the eigenfunctions Exp[ikx] and eigenvalue k


  Exp[ikx]
= kExp[ikx]
i
 x
We note that k can take any value
 > k > 
Operators and Quantum Mechanics New insight

ikx ikx 2k 2

 (x)  Aexp  Bexp and energies E =
2m

ikx
For A = 0   (x )  B exp
this wavefunction is also an eigenfunction to pˆ x
With eigenvalue for pˆ x of - k


 2k 2
Thus - (x ) describes a particle of energy E =
2m
Px2
and momentum px  k ; note E = as it must be.
 2m
This system corresponds to a particle
moving with constant velocity
p
v x  x  -k/m We know nothing about its position
m 2
 since |  (x) | B
Operators and Quantum Mechanics New insight

2 2
ikx ikx and energies E = k
 (x)  Aexp  Bexp

 2m
ikx
For B = 0   (x )  A exp
this wavefunction is also an eigenfunction to pˆ x
With eigenvalue for pˆ x of k

2k 2
Thus  (x ) describes a particle of energy E =
2m
Px2
and momentum px  k ; note E = as it must be.
 2m
This system corresponds to a particle
moving with constant velocity
px
vx   k/m We know nothing about its position
m 2
 since |  (x) | B
Operators and Quantum Mechanics New insight

ikx ikx
What about : (x )  A exp  B exp ?
It is not an eigenfunction to pˆ x since :
 d  d
pˆ x (x) = A ikx
exp  B expikx
i dx i dx
ikx ikx

 Ak exp  Bk exp
How can we find
px in this case ?
Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions

A linear operator Aˆ will have a set of

eigenfunctions fn (x ) {n = 1,2,3..etc}
and associated eigenvalues k n such that :

ˆ fn (x )  k n fn (x )
A

The set of eigenfunction {fn (x),n  1..}

is orthonormal :
f (x) * f (x)dx    o if i  j
i j ij
all space  1 if i = j
Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions
An example of an orthonormal set is the Cartesian unit vectors
ei

ei ei  e j   ij

ei

An example of an orthonormal function set is

1 nx 
 n (x) = sin
L  L 
n = 1, 2, 3,4, 5....

L
 (x) *  (x)  
 n m nm
o
Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions
The set of eigenfunction {fn (x ),n  1..}
forms a complete set.
That is, any function g(x) that
depends on the same variables
as the eigenfunctions can be written
ei ; i = 1, 2,3 form a complete set

all ei
g(x) =  anfn (x )
i=1 ei

where
ei
an  f (x)* g(x)dx
 n 

all space For
 any vector v
 
     
     
   
v
 ( v  e )
1 1e  (v  e )
2 2e  ( v  e 3 e3
)
 Quantum mechanical principles..Eigenfunctions
all
In the expansion : g(x) =  aifi (x ) (1)
i=1

we can show that : an   fn (x)* g(x)dx

V
*
from the orthonormality :  fi (x) fj (x)dx  ij
V
A multiplication by fn (x) on both sides followed by
integration affords
all all
g(x) =  aifi (x)   fn (x) g(x)dx =  ai  fn (x)* fi (x)dx
*
i=1 V i=1 V
*
or : : aann 
or  g(x)f
all space
space
nn(x
(x)
)dx dx ij
all
 Operators and Quantum Mechanics
(x)  A exp ikx  Bexp ikx is a linear combination
of two eigenfunctions to pˆ x

px  k
 px  k


How can we find

px in this case ?
What you should learn from this lecture
1. Postulate 3
For an observable  with the corresponding operator  ˆ
we have the eigenvalue equation :   n   n  n
(i) The meassurement of the quantity represented by 
has as the o n l y outcome one of the values  n n = 1, 2, 3 ....
(ii) If the system is in a state described by  n
a meassurement of  will result in the value n
Illustrations :
  (x)  A expikx is an eigenfunction to pˆ x with eigenvalue k
  (x)  A expikx is an eigenfunction to pˆ x with eigenvalue - k
Both are eigenfunctions to the Hamiltonian for a free particle
 2 (ˆpx )2  2 k2
H= with eigenvalues E =
2m 2m
  (x) represents a free particle of momentum k

  (x) represents a free particle of momentum - k


What you should learn from this lecture
2. Postulate 4.

The set of eigenfunction {fn (x),n  1..}

forms a complete set.
That is, any function g(x) that depends on the same
variables as the eigenfunctions can be written :
all
g(x) =  anfn (x) where
i=1

an   g(x)fn (x)dx
all space