Chapter 2

Data Link Layer

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Data Link Layer 2-1

Data Link Layer and LANs: Outline
2.1 Introduction, Services
2.2 Error Detection, Correction
2.3 Flow Control
2.4 Error Control
2.5 Multiple Access Protocols
2.6 LANs
 Addressing, ARP
 Ethernet
 Switches
 VLANS

Data Link Layer 2-2

2.1 Data Link layer: Introduction
Terminology:
 hosts and routers: nodes
 communication channels that global ISP

connect adjacent nodes along

communication path: links
 wired links
 wireless links
 LANs
 layer-2 packet: frame,
encapsulates datagram

data-link layer has responsibility of

transferring datagram from one node
to physically adjacent node over a link
Data Link Layer 2-3
Data Link layer: context
 datagram transferred by different link
protocols over different links:
 e.g., Ethernet on first link, frame relay on
intermediate links, 802.11 on last link
 each link protocol provides different
services
 e.g., may or may not provide reliable data
trasfer over link

Data Link Layer 2-4

Data Link layer services
 framing, link access:
 encapsulate datagram into frame, adding header,
trailer
 channel access if shared medium
 “MAC” addresses used in frame headers to identify
source, destination
• different from IP address!
 reliable delivery between adjacent nodes
 seldom used on low bit-error link (fiber, some
twisted pair)
 wireless links: high error rates
• Q: why both link-level and end-end reliability?

Data Link Layer 2-5

Data Link layer services (more)
 flow control:
 pacing between adjacent sending and receiving nodes
 error detection:
 errors caused by signal attenuation, noise.
 receiver detects presence of errors:
• signals sender for retransmission or drops frame
 error correction:
 receiver identifies and corrects bit error(s) without
resorting to retransmission
 half-duplex and full-duplex
 with half duplex, nodes at both ends of link can
transmit, but not at same time
Data Link Layer 2-6
Where is the data link layer implemented?
 in each and every host
 link layer implemented in
“adaptor” (aka network
interface card NIC) or on a
application
chip transport
 Ethernet card, 802.11 network
link
cpu memory

card; Ethernet chipset

 implements link, physical host
layer controller
bus
(e.g., PCI)
link
 attaches into host’s system physical
physical
buses transmission
 combination of hardware,
software, firmware network adapter
card

Data Link Layer 2-7

Adaptors communicating

datagram datagram

controller controller

sending host receiving host

datagram

frame

 sending side:  receiving side

 encapsulates datagram in  looks for errors, rdt, flow
frame control, etc
 adds error checking bits,  extracts datagram, passes
rdt, flow control, etc. to upper layer at
receiving side
Data Link Layer 2-8
2.2 Error Detection & Correction
EDC= Error Detection and Correction bits (redundancy)
D = Data protected by error checking, may include header fields

• Error detection not 100% reliable!

• protocol may miss some errors, but rarely
• larger EDC field yields better detection and correction

otherwise

Data Link Layer 2-9

Parity checking
single bit parity: two-dimensional bit parity:
 detect single bit  detect and correct single bit errors
errors

0 0

Data Link Layer 2-10

Internet checksum (review)
goal: detect “errors” (e.g., flipped bits) in transmitted packet
(note: used at transport layer only)

sender: receiver:
 treat segment contents as  compute checksum of
sequence of 16-bit received segment
integers  check if computed
 checksum: addition (1’s checksum equals checksum
complement sum) of field value:
segment contents  NO - error detected
 sender puts checksum  YES - no error detected.
value into UDP But maybe errors
checksum field nonetheless?

Data Link Layer 2-11

Cyclic redundancy check
 more powerful error-detection coding
 view data bits, D, as a binary number
 choose r+1 bit pattern (generator), G
 goal: choose r CRC bits, R, such that
 <D,R> is exactly divisible by G (modulo 2)
 receiver knows G, divides <D,R> by G. If non-zero remainder:
error detected!
 can detect all burst errors less than r+1 bits
 widely used in practice (Ethernet, 802.11 WiFi, ATM)

Data Link Layer 2-12

CRC example
want:
D.2r XOR R = nG
equivalently:
D.2r = nG XOR R
equivalently:
if we divide D.2r by
G, want remainder R
to satisfy:

D.2r
R = remainder[ ]
G

Data Link Layer 2-13

2.3 Flow Control
 Ensuring the sending entity does not overwhelm the
receiving entity
 Preventing buffer overflow
 Transmission time
 Time taken to emit all bits into medium at the sender’s side
 Determined by the data rate
 Propagation time
 Time for a bit to traverse the link and reach the destination
 Determined by the transmission distance
 We first assume error-free transmission.

Data Link Layer 14

Model of Frame Transmission

Data Link Layer 15

Stop-and-Wait Flow Control
 Source transmits a frame.
 Destination receives the frame, and replies with a
small frame called acknowledgement (ACK).
 Source waits for the ACK before sending the next
frame.
 This is the core of the protocol !
 Destination can stop the flow by not sending ACK
(e.g., if the destination is busy …).

Data Link Layer 16

Performance of Stop-and-Wait
 Assumptions
 Transmission time of the data frame is 1
 Transmission time of the ACK frame is 0
 Propagation time is a
• a is the ratio of propagation time over transmission time
 Error-free transmission
 The channel utilization ratio is 1/(1+2a)
 In a time period of 1+2a, the transmitter is only busy with 1 unit of
time.
 It is not efficient for long haul transmission and high speed
transmission.
 Another type of protocol called “sliding-window” is designed for
this situation.

Data Link Layer 17

Sliding-Window Flow Control
 Idea: allow multiple frames to transmit
 Receiver has a buffer of W frames
 Transmitter can send up to W frames without receiving
ACK
 Each frame needs to be numbered: sequence
number is included in the frame header
 Sequence number is bounded by the length of
“sequence number field” in the header, e.g., k bits
• Frames are numbered modulo 2k
 ACK includes the sequence number of the next
expected frame by the receiver

Data Link Layer 18

Sliding-Window Diagram
Need to buffer
them in case of
retransmission

Data Link Layer 19

Example Sliding-Window

RR3 means the receiver has

received all frames up to
frame 2 and is ready to
receive frame 3.

Have been delivered More spaces for

to upper layer future frames

Data Link Layer 20

Performance of Sliding-Window
 Assumptions
 Window size is W
 Frame transmission time is 1
 ACK transmission time is 0
 Propagation time is a
 Error-free transmission
 The channel utilization ratio is

 1 W  2a  1

U  W
 2a  1 W  2a  1

Data Link Layer 21

2.4 Error Control
 Error control: detection of errors and retransmission
 We consider two types of errors:
 Lost frames
• The receiver cannot recognize that this is a frame.
 Damaged frames
• The receiver can recognize the frame, but some bits are in error.
 Two approaches for error control
 ARQ: automatic repeat request, based on some or all of the
following ingredients:
• Error detection
• Positive acknowledgment
• Retransmission after timeout
• Negative acknowledgement and retransmission
 FEC: forward error correction

Data Link Layer 22

Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
 The effect of ARQ is to turn an unreliable data
link into a reliable one.
 Three versions of ARQ:
 Stop-and-wait
 Go-back-N
 Selective-reject (or, selective repeat)

Data Link Layer 23

Stop-and-Wait ARQ
 Based on stop-and-wait flow control
 The source station is equipped with a timer.
 Source transmits a single frame, and waits for an ACK
 If the frame is lost…
 The timer eventually fires, and the source retransmits the frame.
 If receiver receives a damaged frame, discard it
 The timer eventually fires, and the source retransmits the frame.
 If everything goes right, but the ACK is damaged or lost, the source
will not recognize it
 The timer eventually fires, the source will retransmit the frame
 Receiver gets two copies of the same frame!
 Solution: use sequence numbers, 1 bit is enough, i.e., frame0 and frame1,
ACK0 and ACK1

Data Link Layer 24

Stop-and-Wait
Diagram

Simple, but inefficient for long distance

and high speed applications.
We can use sliding-window technique
to improve the efficiency.

Data Link Layer 25

Go-Back-N ARQ
 Based on sliding-window flow control
 Use window size to control the number of
unacknowledged frames outstanding
 If no error, the destination will send ACK as usual with
next frame expected (positive ACK, RR: receive ready)
 If error, the destination will reply with rejection (negative
ACK, REJ: reject)
 Receiver discards that frame and all future frames, until the
erroneous frame is received correctly.
 Source must go back and retransmit that frame and all succeeding
frames that were transmitted in the interim.
 This makes the receiver simple, but decreases the efficiency

Data Link Layer 26

Go-Back-N: Damaged Frame
 Suppose A is sending frames to B. After each
transmission, A sets a timer for the frame.
 In Go-Back-N ARQ, if the receiver detects error in
frame i
 Receiver discards the frame, and sends REJ-i
 Source gets REJ-i
 Source retransmits frame i and all subsequent frames

Data Link Layer 27

Go-Back-N: Lost Frame (1)
 Assume receiver has received frame i-1. Frame i is
lost, but source still sends frame i+1
 Receiver gets frame i+1 out of order
 Receiver sends REJ-i
 Source gets REJ-i, and so goes back to frame i and
retransmits frame i, i+1, …

Data Link Layer 28

Go-Back-N: Lost Frame (2)
 Assume receiver has received frame i-1
 Frame i is lost and no additional frame is sent
 Receiver gets nothing and returns neither
acknowledgement nor rejection
 Source times out and sends a request to receiver asking
for instructions
 Receiver responses with RR frame, including the
number of the next frame it expects, i.e., frame i
 Source then retransmits frame i

Data Link Layer 29

Go-Back-N: Damaged RR
 Receiver gets frame i and sends RR-(i+1) which is
lost or damaged
 Acknowledgements are cumulative, so the next
acknowledgement, i.e., RR-(i+1) may arrive
before the source times out on frame i
 If source times out, it sends a request to receiver
asking for instructions, just like the previous
example

Data Link Layer 30

Go-Back-N: Damaged REJ
 It is equivalent to the case of lost frame (2).
 Source times out and sends a request to receiver asking
for instructions
 Receiver responses with RR frame, including the
number of the next frame it expects
 Source then retransmits

Data Link Layer 31

Go-Back-N
Diagram
Remark:
RR(P bit = 1) is a special RR which
is used by the source to ask for
instructions.
For a k-bit sequence number, the
window size can be at most 2k-1,
otherwise RR 0 is ambiguous (e.g.,
first sends frame 0 and gets back
an RR1, and then sends frames 1,
…,7,0, and gets another RR1).

Data Link Layer 32

Selective-Reject ARQ
 Also called selective repeat
 Pros:
 Only rejected frames are retransmitted
 Subsequent frames are accepted by the receiver and
buffered
 Minimizes the amount of retransmissions
 Cons:
 Receiver must maintain large enough buffer, and must
contain logic for reinserting the retransmitted frame in
the proper sequence
 Also more complex logic in the source

Data Link Layer 33

Selective Reject - Diagram
Remark:
For a k-bit sequence number, the
window size can be at most 2k-1,
because the sending and receiving
windows overlap.
Assume k=3, and window size is 5.
1. A sends frames 0, 1, …, 4 to B.
2. B receives all 5 frames, and
cumulatively acknowledges with
RR5.
3. RR5 is lost.
4. A times out, and retransmits
frame 0.
5. B is expecting a new set of
frames 5, 6, 7, 0, 1. So it will
accept the retransmitted frame 0 Data Link Layer 34
2.5 Multiple access links, protocols
two types of “links”:
 point-to-point
 PPP for dial-up access
 point-to-point link between Ethernet switch, host
 broadcast (shared wire or medium)
 old-fashioned Ethernet
 upstream HFC
 802.11 wireless LAN

shared wire (e.g., shared RF shared RF humans at a

cabled Ethernet) (e.g., 802.11 WiFi) (satellite) cocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)

Data Link Layer 2-35

Multiple access protocols
 single shared broadcast channel
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference
 collision if node receives two or more signals at the
same time

multiple access protocol

 distributed algorithm that determines how nodes share
channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit
 communication about channel sharing must use
channel itself!
 no out-of-band channel for coordination
Data Link Layer 2-36
An ideal multiple access protocol
given: broadcast channel of rate R bps
desiderata:
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at
rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at
average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:
• no special node to coordinate transmissions
• no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple

Data Link Layer 2-37

MAC protocols: taxonomy
three broad classes:
 channel partitioning
 divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency, code)
 allocate piece to node for exclusive use
 random access
 channel not divided, allow collisions
 “recover” from collisions
 “taking turns”
 nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take
longer turns

Data Link Layer 2-38

Channel partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
 access to channel in "rounds"
 each station gets fixed length slot (length =
pkt trans time) in each round
 unused slots go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt,
slots 2,5,6 idle
6-slot 6-slot
frame frame
1 3 4 1 3 4

Data Link Layer 2-39

Channel partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
 channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
 each station assigned fixed frequency band
 unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
 example: 6-station LAN, 1,3,4 have pkt, frequency
bands 2,5,6 idle
time
frequency bands

FDM cable

Data Link Layer 2-40

Random access protocols
 when node has packet to send
 transmit at full channel data rate R.
 no a priori coordination among nodes
 two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”,
 random access MAC protocol specifies:
 how to detect collisions
 how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed
retransmissions)
 examples of random access MAC protocols:
 slotted ALOHA
 ALOHA
 CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
Data Link Layer 2-41
Slotted ALOHA
assumptions: operation:
 all frames same size  when node obtains fresh
 time divided into equal size frame, transmits in next slot
slots (time to transmit 1  if no collision: node can
frame) send new frame in next slot
 nodes start to transmit only  if collision: node
slot beginning retransmits frame in each
 nodes are synchronized subsequent slot with prob.
 if 2 or more nodes transmit p until success
in slot, all nodes detect
collision

Data Link Layer 2-42

Slotted ALOHA
node 1 1 1 1 1

node 2 2 2 2

node 3 3 3 3

C E C S E C E S S

Pros: Cons:
 single active node can  collisions, wasting slots
continuously transmit at  idle slots
full rate of channel  nodes may be able to
 highly decentralized: only detect collision in less
slots in nodes need to be than time to transmit
in sync
packet
 simple  clock synchronization
Data Link Layer 2-43
Slotted ALOHA: efficiency

efficiency: long-run  max efficiency: find p*

fraction of successful slots that maximizes
(many nodes, all with Np(1-p)N-1
many frames to send)  for many nodes, take limit
of Np*(1-p*)N-1 as N goes
 suppose: N nodes with to infinity, gives:
many frames to send, each max efficiency = 1/e = .37
transmits in slot with
probability p
at best: channel

!
 prob that given node has
success in a slot = p(1- used for useful
p)N-1 transmissions 37%
 prob that any node has a of time!
success = Np(1-p)N-1
Data Link Layer 2-44
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
 unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
 when frame first arrives
 transmit immediately
 collision probability increases:
 frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1,t0+1]

Data Link Layer 2-45

Pure ALOHA efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0]

= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)

… choosing optimum p and then letting n

= 1/(2e) = .18

even worse than slotted Aloha!

Data Link Layer 2-46

CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)

CSMA: listen before transmit:

if channel sensed idle: transmit entire frame
 if channel sensed busy, defer transmission

 human analogy: don’t interrupt others!

Data Link Layer 2-47

CSMA collisions spatial layout of nodes

 collisions can still occur:

propagation delay means
two nodes may not hear
each other’s
transmission
 collision: entire packet
transmission time
wasted
 distance & propagation
delay play role in in
determining collision
probability

Data Link Layer 2-48

CSMA/CD (collision detection)
CSMA/CD: carrier sensing, deferral as in CSMA
 collisions detected within short time
 colliding transmissions aborted, reducing channel wastage
 collision detection:
 easy in wired LANs: measure signal strengths, compare
transmitted, received signals
 difficult in wireless LANs: received signal strength
overwhelmed by local transmission strength
 human analogy: the polite conversationalist

Data Link Layer 2-49

CSMA/CD (collision detection)
spatial layout of nodes

Data Link Layer 2-50

Ethernet CSMA/CD algorithm
1. NIC receives datagram 4. If NIC detects another
from network layer, transmission while
creates frame transmitting, aborts and
2. If NIC senses channel sends jam signal
idle, starts frame 5. After aborting, NIC
transmission. If NIC enters binary
senses channel busy, waits (exponential) backoff:
until channel idle, then  after mth collision, NIC
transmits. chooses K at random
3. If NIC transmits entire from {0,1,2, …, 2m-1}.
frame without detecting NIC waits K·512 bit
another transmission, NIC times, returns to Step 2
is done with frame !  longer backoff interval
with more collisions
Data Link Layer 2-51
CSMA/CD efficiency
 Tprop = max prop delay between 2 nodes in LAN
 ttrans = time to transmit max-size frame

1
efficiency 
1  5t prop /t trans
 efficiency goes to 1
 as tprop goes to 0
 as ttrans goes to infinity
 better performance than ALOHA: and simple, cheap,
decentralized!

Data Link Layer 2-52

“Taking turns” MAC protocols
channel partitioning MAC protocols:
 share channel efficiently and fairly at high load
 inefficient at low load: delay in channel access, 1/N
bandwidth allocated even if only 1 active node!
random access MAC protocols
 efficient at low load: single node can fully utilize
channel
 high load: collision overhead
“taking turns” protocols
look for best of both worlds!

Data Link Layer 2-53

“Taking turns” MAC protocols
polling:
 master node “invites”
slave nodes to transmit data
in turn poll
 typically used with
“dumb” slave devices master
data
 concerns:
 polling overhead
 latency
 single point of slaves
failure (master)

Data Link Layer 2-54

“Taking turns” MAC protocols
token passing:
T
 control token passed
from one node to next
sequentially.
 token message
(nothing
 concerns: to send)
 token overhead T
 latency
 single point of failure
(token)

data
Data Link Layer 2-55
Summary of MAC protocols
 channel partitioning, by time, frequency or code
 Time Division, Frequency Division
 random access (dynamic),
 ALOHA, S-ALOHA, CSMA, CSMA/CD
 carrier sensing: easy in some technologies (wire), hard
in others (wireless)
 CSMA/CD used in Ethernet
 CSMA/CA used in 802.11
 taking turns
 polling from central site, token passing
 bluetooth, FDDI, token ring

Data Link Layer 2-56

2.6 MAC addresses and ARP
 32-bit IP address:
 network-layer address for interface
 used for layer 3 (network layer) forwarding
 MAC (or LAN or physical or Ethernet) address:
 function: used ‘locally” to get frame from one interface to
another physically-connected interface (same network, in
IP-addressing sense)
 48 bit MAC address (for most LANs) burned in NIC ROM,
also sometimes software settable
 e.g.: 1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

hexadecimal (base 16) notation

(each “number” represents 4 bits)

Data Link Layer 2-57

 LAN addresses and ARP
each adapter on LAN has unique LAN address

1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD

LAN
(wired or adapter
wireless)
71-65-F7-2B-08-53
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0

0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98

Data Link Layer 2-58

LAN addresses (more)
 MAC address allocation administered by IEEE
 manufacturer buys portion of MAC address space
(to assure uniqueness)
 analogy:
 MAC address: like Social Security Number
 IP address: like postal address
 MAC flat address ➜ portability
 can move LAN card from one LAN to another
 IP hierarchical address not portable
 address depends on IP subnet to which node is attached

Data Link Layer 2 -59

 ARP: address resolution protocol
Question: how to determine
interface’s MAC address,
knowing its IP address? ARP table: each IP node (host,
router) on LAN has table
137.196.7.78
 IP/MAC address
mappings for some LAN
1A-2F-BB-76-09-AD
nodes:
137.196.7.23
137.196.7.14
< IP address; MAC address; TTL>
 TTL (Time To Live):
LAN time after which address
71-65-F7-2B-08-53 mapping will be
58-23-D7-FA-20-B0
forgotten (typically 20
min)
0C-C4-11-6F-E3-98
137.196.7.88

Data Link Layer 2-60

ARP protocol: same LAN
 A wants to send datagram
to B
 B’s MAC address not in A’s  A caches (saves) IP-to-
ARP table. MAC address pair in its
 A broadcasts ARP query ARP table until
packet, containing B's IP information becomes old
address (times out)
 dest MAC address = FF-  soft state: information that
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF times out (goes away)
 all nodes on LAN receive unless refreshed
ARP query  ARP is “plug-and-play”:
 B receives ARP packet,  nodes create their ARP
replies to A with its (B's) tables without intervention
MAC address from net administrator
 frame sent to A’s MAC
address (unicast)

Data Link Layer 2-61

 Addressing: routing to another LAN
walkthrough: send datagram from A to B via R
 focus on addressing – at IP (datagram) and MAC layer (frame)
 assume A knows B’s IP address
 assume A knows IP address of first hop router, R (how?)
 assume A knows R’s MAC address (how?)

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Data Link Layer 2-62

Addressing: routing to another LAN
 A creates IP datagram with IP source A, destination B
 A creates link-layer frame with R's MAC address as dest, frame
contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Data Link Layer 2-63

Addressing: routing to another LAN
 frame sent from A to R
 frame received at R, datagram removed, passed up to IP

MAC src: 74-29-9C-E8-FF-55

MAC dest: E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP IP
Eth Eth
Phy Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Data Link Layer 2-64

Addressing: routing to another LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest, frame
contains A-to-B IP datagram

MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Data Link Layer 2-65

Addressing: routing to another LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest, frame
contains A-to-B IP datagram

MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222
IP
IP Eth
Eth Phy
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Data Link Layer 2-66

Addressing: routing to another LAN
 R forwards datagram with IP source A, destination B
 R creates link-layer frame with B's MAC address as dest, frame
contains A-to-B IP datagram
MAC src: 1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B
MAC dest: 49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
IP src: 111.111.111.111
IP dest: 222.222.222.222

IP
Eth
Phy

A B
R
111.111.111.111
222.222.222.222
74-29-9C-E8-FF-55
49-BD-D2-C7-56-2A
222.222.222.220
1A-23-F9-CD-06-9B

111.111.111.112 111.111.111.110 222.222.222.221

CC-49-DE-D0-AB-7D E6-E9-00-17-BB-4B 88-B2-2F-54-1A-0F

Data Link Layer 2-67

Ethernet
“dominant” wired LAN technology:
 cheap $20 for NIC
 first widely used LAN technology
 simpler, cheaper than token LANs and ATM
 kept up with speed race: 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps

Metcalfe’s Ethernet sketch

Data Link Layer 2-68
Ethernet: physical topology
 bus: popular through mid 90s
 all nodes in same collision domain (can collide with each
other)
 star: prevails today
 active switch in center
 each “spoke” runs a (separate) Ethernet protocol (nodes do
not collide with each other)

switch
star
bus: coaxial cable
Data Link Layer 2-69
Ethernet frame structure
sending adapter encapsulates IP datagram (or other
network layer protocol packet) in Ethernet frame
type
dest. source
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)

preamble:
 7 bytes with pattern 10101010 followed by one
byte with pattern 10101011
 used to synchronize receiver, sender clock rates

Data Link Layer 2-70

Ethernet frame structure (more)
 addresses: 6 byte source, destination MAC addresses
 if adapter receives frame with matching destination
address, or with broadcast address (e.g. ARP packet), it
passes data in frame to network layer protocol
 otherwise, adapter discards frame
 type: indicates higher layer protocol (mostly IP but
others possible, e.g., Novell IPX, AppleTalk)
 CRC: cyclic redundancy check at receiver
 error detected: frame is dropped

type
dest. source
preamble address address data CRC
(payload)

Data Link Layer 2-71

Ethernet: unreliable, connectionless
 connectionless: no handshaking between sending and
receiving NICs
 unreliable: receiving NIC doesnt send acks or nacks
to sending NIC
 data in dropped frames recovered only if initial
sender uses higher layer rdt (e.g., TCP), otherwise
dropped data lost
 Ethernet’s MAC protocol: unslotted CSMA/CD wth
binary backoff

Data Link Layer 2-72

802.3 Ethernet standards: link & physical layers
 many different Ethernet standards
 common MAC protocol and frame format
 different speeds: 2 Mbps, 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1Gbps,
10G bps
 different physical layer media: fiber, cable

MAC protocol
application and frame format
transport
network 100BASE-TX 100BASE-T2 100BASE-FX
link 100BASE-T4 100BASE-SX 100BASE-BX
physical

copper (twister fiber physical layer

pair) physical layer
Data Link Layer 2-73
Link Layer: Ethernet switch
 link-layer device: takes an active role
 store, forward Ethernet frames
 examine incoming frame’s MAC address,
selectively forward frame to one-or-more
outgoing links when frame is to be forwarded on
segment, uses CSMA/CD to access segment
 transparent
 hosts are unaware of presence of switches
 plug-and-play, self-learning
 switches do not need to be configured

Data Link Layer 2-74

Switch: multiple simultaneous transmissions
 hosts have dedicated, direct A
connection to switch
C’ B
 switches buffer packets
 Ethernet protocol used on each 6 1 2
incoming link, but no collisions;
full duplex 5 4 3
 each link is its own collision
domain B’ C
 switching: A-to-A’ and B-to-B’
can transmit simultaneously, A’
without collisions switch with six interfaces
(1,2,3,4,5,6)

Data Link Layer 2-75

Switch forwarding table
Q: how does switch know A’ A
reachable via interface 4, B’ B
C’
reachable via interface 5?
 A: each switch has a switch 6 1 2
table, each entry:
5 4 3
 (MAC address of host, interface
to reach host, time stamp) B’ C
 looks like a routing table!
A’
Q: how are entries created, switch with six interfaces
maintained in switch table? (1,2,3,4,5,6)
 something like a routing
protocol?
Data Link Layer 2-76
Switch: self-learning Source: A
Dest: A’

A A A’
 switch learns which hosts
can be reached through B
C’
which interfaces
 when frame received, 6 1 2
switch “learns”
location of sender: 5 4 3
incoming LAN segment
 records sender/location B’ C
pair in switch table
A’

MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 Switch table
(initially empty)

Data Link Layer 2-77

Switch: frame filtering/forwarding
when frame received at switch:

1. record incoming link, MAC address of sending host

2. index switch table using MAC destination address
3. if entry found for destination
then {
if destination on segment from which frame arrived
then drop frame
else forward frame on interface indicated by entry
}
else flood /* forward on all interfaces except arriving
interface */

Data Link Layer 2-78

Self-learning, forwarding: example Source: A
Dest: A’

A A A’
 frame destination, A’,
B
locaton unknown: flood C’

1
 destination A location 6 2

known:selectively send A A’
5 4 3
on just one link B’ C
A’ A

A’

MAC addr interface TTL

A 1 60 switch table
A’ 4 60 (initially empty)

Data Link Layer 2-79

Interconnecting switches
 switches can be connected together
S4

S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E

Q: sending from A to G - how does S1 know to

forward frame destined to F via S4 and S3?
 A: self learning! (works exactly the same as in
single-switch case!)
Data Link Layer 2-80
Self-learning multi-switch example
Suppose C sends frame to I, I responds to C

S4

S1
S3
A S2
F
D I
B C
G H
E

 Q: show switch tables and packet forwarding in S1, S2, S3,

S4

Data Link Layer 2-81

Institutional network
mail server
to external
network
router web server

IP subnet

Data Link Layer 2-82

Switches vs. routers
application
transport
both are store-and-forward:
datagram network
 routers: network-layer frame link
devices (examine network- physical link frame
layer headers) physical
 switches: link-layer devices
(examine link-layer switch
headers)
network datagram
both have forwarding tables: link frame
 routers: compute tables physical
using routing algorithms, IP application
addresses transport
 switches: learn forwarding network
table using flooding, link
learning, MAC addresses physical

Data Link Layer 2-83

VLANs: motivation
consider:
 CS user moves office to
EE, but wants connect to
CS switch?
 single broadcast domain:
 all layer-2 broadcast
traffic (ARP, DHCP,
Computer
unknown location of
Science Electrical
Computer
Engineering
destination MAC
Engineering address) must cross
entire LAN
 security/privacy,
efficiency issues

Data Link Layer 2-84

 port-based VLAN: switch ports
VLANs grouped (by switch management
software) so that single physical
switch ……
Virtual Local
1 7 9 15
Area Network 2 8 10 16

switch(es) supporting
VLAN capabilities can … …
be configured to Electrical Engineering Computer Science
define multiple virtual (VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)

LANS over single … operates as multiple virtual switches

physical LAN
infrastructure. 1 7 9 15
2 8 10 16

… …

Electrical Engineering Computer Science

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-16)

Data Link Layer 2-85

 Port-based VLAN
router
 traffic isolation: frames
to/from ports 1-8 can only
reach ports 1-8
 can also define VLAN based on
MAC addresses of endpoints, rather
than switch port 1 7 9 15

2 8 10 16

 dynamic membership: ports

can be dynamically assigned … …
among VLANs Electrical Engineering Computer Science
(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15)

 forwarding between VLANS: done

via routing (just as with separate
switches)
 in practice vendors sell combined
switches plus routers

Data Link Layer 2-86

VLANS spanning multiple switches
1 7 9 15 1 3 5 7

2 8 10 16 2 4 6 8

… …

Electrical Engineering Computer Science Ports 2,3,5 belong to EE VLAN

(VLAN ports 1-8) (VLAN ports 9-15) Ports 4,6,7,8 belong to CS VLAN

 trunk port: carries frames between VLANS defined over

multiple physical switches
 frames forwarded within VLAN between switches can’t be vanilla
802.1 frames (must carry VLAN ID info)
 802.1q protocol adds/removed additional header fields for frames
forwarded between trunk ports

Data Link Layer 2-87

802.1Q VLAN frame format
type

preamble dest. source data (payload) CRC

address address 802.1 frame

type
dest. source
preamble
address address
data (payload) CRC 802.1Q frame

2-byte Tag Protocol Identifier Recomputed

(value: 81-00) CRC

Tag Control Information (12 bit VLAN ID field,

3 bit priority field like IP TOS)

Data Link Layer 2-88